Determination of Optimum Ingredients for Phosphogypsum Composite Stability under Marine Conditions-Response Surface Analysis with Process Variables
Publication: Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 129, Issue 4
Abstract
The construction of mixture designs and the methods of response surface analysis of mixture data are discussed and applied for determining the optimum ingredients for stabilized phosphogypsum (PG) composites conducive to marine application. Of particular importance is the ability of the composites to maintain physical integrity when submerged. Therefore, potential indicators for the survivability of the stabilized PG composites were also screened. The triangular coordinate system was used to present the three ingredient components of the PG composites as well as their dependent variables. The augmented simplex centroid design with pseudocomponents was used in determining mixture ingredient composition. A quadratic model with two process variables was used to analyze the experimental results and predict the optimum ingredient composition. The model predicts that a series of PG: class C fly ash:portland type II cement ingredients, such as 62%:35%:3% PG:class C fly ash:portland type II cement and 65%:31%:4% PG:class C fly ash:portland type II cement composites with class C fly ash content (30.7–36.6%) and portland type II cement content (2.7–4.2%), can survive in marine environments for more than two years. The indicator screening for the survivability of the stabilized PG composites in the marine environment showed that the minimum wet leached surface hardness, minimum wet control surface hardness, and maximum effective diffusion coefficient may serve as indicators.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
References
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). (1989). “Toxicological profile for radium (draft).” U.S. Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Altanta.
American Public Health Association (APHA). (1998). “Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater, American Public Health Association.” American Waterworks Association, and Water Environment Federation. A. Eaton, L. Clesceri, and A. Greenburg, eds., 20th Ed., Washington, D.C.
American Nuclear Society (ANS). (1986). “Measurements of the leachability of solidified low-level radioactive wastes.” ANSI/ANS 16.1, American Nuclear Society, La Grandge Park, Ill.
Barth, E. F. (1990). “Stabilization and solidification of hazardous wastes.” Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, N.J.
Cornell, J. A. (1990). Experiments with mixtures: Design, model and the analysis of mixture data, 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York.
Guo, T. (1998). “Determination of optimal composition of stabilized phosphogypsum composites for saltwater application.” PhD dissertation, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, La.
Guo, T., Hawke, A. S., and Rusch, K. A.(1999a). “Determination for calcium diffusion coefficients as and estimator of long-term dissolution potential for phosphogypsum:cement:lime composites.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 3185–3192.
Guo, T., Seals, R. K., Malone, R. F., and Rusch, K. A.(1999b). “The effects of seawater on the dissolution potential of phosphogypsum:cement composites.” Environ. Eng. Sci., 16(2), 147–156.
Guo, T., Malone, R. F., and Rusch, K. A.(2001). “Stabilized phosphogypsum:class C fly ash:portland type II cement composites for potential marine application.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 3967–3973.
Hinkelmann, K., and Kempthorne, O. (1994). “Design and analysis of experiments.” Instruction to experimental design, Vol. 1, Wiley, New York.
Lide, D., ed. (2001) CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, Version 2001, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.
Kuehl, P. O. (1994). Statistical principles of research design and analysis, Duxbury Press, Belmont, Calif.
Malone, P. G., Jone, L. W., and Larson, R. J. (1980). “Guide to the disposal of chemically stabilized and solidified waste, SW-872.” Office of Water and Waste Management, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 126.
Microsoft Corporation (MS). (1999). Redmond, Wash.
SAS Institute Inc. (1999). Cary, N.C.
SPSS Inc. (1997). Chicago.
Taha, R., and Seals, R. K. (1991). “Phosphogypsum literature review. A report by the institute for recyclable materials to Freeport McMoRan, Inc.” Rep. No. 1-90-4.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (1992). “National emission standards for hazardous air pollutants, national emission standards for radon emissions from phosphogypsum stacks, final rule (40CFR61).” Federal Register, 57(107): 23305, Naragansett, R.I.
USEPA. (1995). “Health effects notebook for hazardous air pollutants-draft.” EPA-452/D-95-00, PB95-503579, December 1995, Naragansett, R.I.
USEPA. (2001). “Radiation NESHAP, national emission standards for hazardous air pollutants.” Subpart R: Radon from phosphogypsum stacks, Narangansett, R.I.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
Copyright © 2003 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Dec 14, 2001
Accepted: Jun 21, 2002
Published online: Mar 14, 2003
Published in print: Apr 2003
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.