Editorial Overview: Emissions of Microplastics and Their Control in the Environment
Publication: Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 147, Issue 9
Background
Microplastics (MPs) (particle size ) have been found in almost all environments on Earth, including urban centers, terrestrial areas, and freshwater environments as well as in remote uninhabited islands, deep seafloor, and polar regions (Liu et al. 2019; Ni et al. 2020; Yin et al. 2021). They are released to the environment directly from primary sources (such as cosmetic and cleansing commodities, and personal care and pharmaceutical products), or indirectly from secondary sources through the fragmentation and degradation of meso and macroplastics (Schernewski et al. 2020). In the foreseeable future, such release will continue and may increase. For instance, about 360 million tons of plastics were manufactured worldwide in 2018 (PlasticsEurope 2019). The global plastic production has been projected to reach 25 billion tons in total by 2050 following current trends, in which approximately 4.9 billion tons will be discarded as waste and discharged to the environment (Geyer et al. 2017). Eventually, most plastic waste will accumulate and persist in ecosystems as MPs or even nanoplastics through fragmentation processes. Thus, the effects of microplastic pollution on the environment and the associated risks for human health are of growing concern. Researchers from a variety of scientific disciplines have been involved in studies on MPs, from limnology and oceanography to toxicology, and from marine biology to analytical and polymer chemistry. This has led to the breakout of new research and resultant papers on the occurrence, fate, transport, and effects of MPs in various environmental media in recent years (Table 1). In 2020 alone, more than 40 review articles on MPs in the environment were published. In addition to the explosion of interest in these topics, researchers started to make efforts on the source apportionment of microplastic emissions and their control. Therefore, the objective of this editorial is to provide an overview of microplastic emissions and their control in the environment, and to discuss the directions for future endeavors.
Review title | Research subject | Author and year |
---|---|---|
Atmospheric microplastics: A review on current status and perspectives | Atmospheric MPs | Zhang et al. (2020b) |
Mini-review of microplastics in the atmosphere and their risks to humans | Atmospheric MPs | Chen et al. (2020a) |
Mini-review on current studies of airborne microplastics: Analytical methods, occurrence, sources, fate and potential risk to human beings | Atmospheric MPs | Huang et al. (2020) |
A new contaminant superhighway? A review of sources, measurement techniques and fate of atmospheric microplastics | Atmospheric MPs | Mbachu et al. (2020) |
An overview of analytical methods for detecting microplastics in the atmosphere | Atmospheric MPs analysis | Chen et al. (2020b) |
The fate of microplastic in marine sedimentary environments: A review and synthesis | Marine MPs occurrence | Harris (2020) |
Review of microplastic occurrence and toxicological effects in marine environment: Experimental evidence of inflammation | Marine MPs toxicological effects | Pirsaheb et al. (2020) |
Microplastic contamination of drinking water: A systematic review | MPs occurrence in drinking water | Danopoulos et al. (2020) |
Behavior of microplastics and plastic film residues in the soil environment: A critical review | MPs occurrence in soil | Qi et al. (2020) |
Microplastics in the soil environment: Occurrence, risks, interactions and fate—A review | MPs occurrence in soil | Xu et al. (2020a) |
A review of microplastics pollution in the soil and terrestrial ecosystems: A global and Bangladesh perspective | MPs occurrence in soil | Sarker et al. (2020) |
Microplastics in soils: A review of methods, occurrence, fate, transport, ecological and environmental risks | MPs occurrence in soil | Zhou et al. (2020) |
Incidence of microplastics in personal care products: An appreciable part of plastic pollution | MPs emission source | Sun et al. (2020) |
Riverine microplastics: Behaviour, spatio-temporal variability, and recommendations for standardised sampling and monitoring | MPs occurrence in river | Skalska et al. (2020) |
Removal of microplastics via drinking water treatment: Current knowledge and future directions | MPs control in drinking water | Shen et al. (2020) |
Efficiency of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) for microplastic removal: A systematic review | MPs control in WWTPs | Cristaldi et al. (2020) |
Effects of microplastics on wastewater and sewage sludge treatment and their removal: A review | MPs control in WWTPs | Zhang and Chen (2020) |
Assessment of microplastics in freshwater systems: A review | MPs occurrence in freshwater | Li et al. (2020) |
Interaction of freshwater microplastics with biota and heavy metals: A review | MPs ecological effects in freshwater | Naqash et al. (2020) |
Advances and challenges of microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems: A UK perspective | MPs in UK freshwater | Meng et al. (2020) |
Occurrences and distribution of microplastic pollution and the control measures in China | MPs in China | Fu et al. (2020a) |
Microplastic pollution research methodologies, abundance, characteristics and risk assessments for aquatic biota in China | MPs ecological effects in China | Fu et al. (2020b) |
A meta-analysis of methodologies adopted by microplastic studies in China | MPs analysis in China | Fok et al. (2020) |
A critical review of microplastic pollution in urban freshwater environments and legislative progress in China: Recommendations and insights | MPs in freshwater | Xu et al. (2020b) |
Gathering at the top? Environmental controls of microplastic uptake and biomagnification in freshwater food webs | MPs control in freshwater | Krause et al. (2020) |
A review: Research progress on microplastic pollutants in aquatic environments | MPs in aquatic environments | Tang et al. (2020) |
Microplastics in aquatic environment: Characterization, ecotoxicological effect, implications for ecosystems and developments in South Africa | MPs ecological effects in South Africa | Pereao et al. (2020) |
Source, migration and toxicology of microplastics in soil | MPs ecological effects in soil | Guo et al. (2020) |
Release kinetics as a key linkage between the occurrence of flame retardants in microplastics and their risk to the environment and ecosystem: A critical review | MPs ecological effects | Cheng et al. (2020) |
Bioavailability and toxicity of microplastics to fish species: A review | MPs ecological effects on fish | Wang et al. (2020) |
Toward an improved understanding of the ingestion and trophic transfer of microplastic particles: Critical review and implications for future research | MPs ecological effects | Gouin (2020) |
Microplastics pollution in wastewater: Characteristics, occurrence and removal technologies | MPs control in wastewater | Bui et al. (2020) |
Removal of microplastics from the environment. A review | MPs control | Padervand et al. (2020) |
Microplastics and their potential effects on the aquaculture systems: A critical review | MPs occurrence in aquaculture system | Zhou et al. (2021) |
Sources, transport, measurement and impact of nano and microplastics in urban watersheds | MPs occurrence in urban watersheds | Birch et al. (2020b) |
A critical review of extraction and identification methods of microplastics in wastewater and drinking water | MPs analysis in water | Elkhatib and Oyanedel-Craver (2020) |
Finding microplastics in soils: A review of analytical methods | MPs analysis in soil | Möller et al. (2020) |
Expanding exploration of dynamic microplastic surface characteristics and interactions | MPs analysis | Burrows et al. (2020) |
Contributions of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy in microplastic pollution research: A review | MPs analysis | Veerasingam et al. (2020) |
Quality criteria for microplastic effect studies in the context of risk assessment: A critical review | Risk assessment | de Ruijter et al. (2020) |
How climate change and eutrophication interact with microplastic pollution and sediment resuspension in shallow lakes: A review | MPs ecological effects in lakes | Zhang et al. (2020a) |
Airborne microplastics: A review study on method for analysis, occurrence, movement and risks | Atmospheric MPs analysis | Enyoh et al. (2019) |
Microplastics in the environment: A critical review of current understanding and identification of future research needs | MPs in the environment | Akdogan and Guven (2019) |
Bioavailability and effects of microplastics on marine zooplankton: A review | Marine MPs ecological effects | Botterell et al. (2019) |
Microplastics in wastewater treatment plants: Detection, occurrence and removal | MPs occurrence in WWTPs | Sun et al. (2019) |
Current research trends on microplastic pollution from wastewater systems: A critical review | MPs analysis in wastewater | Hu et al. (2019) |
Microplastics in freshwaters and drinking water: Critical review and assessment of data quality | MPs analysis in freshwaters | Koelmans et al. (2019) |
Toward the development and application of an environmental risk assessment framework for microplastic | Risk assessment | Gouin et al. (2019) |
Solutions and integrated strategies for the control and mitigation of plastic and microplastic pollution | MPs control | Prata et al. (2019) |
Nano- and microplastic analysis: Focus on their occurrence in freshwater ecosystems and remediation technologies | MPs occurrence in freshwater | Pico et al. (2019) |
Promising techniques and open challenges for microplastic identification and quantification in environmental matrices | MPs analysis | Zarfl (2019) |
Sampling techniques and preparation methods for microplastic analyses in the aquatic environment—A review | MPs analysis in aquatic environments | Stock et al. (2019) |
Microplastics as contaminants in the soil environment: A mini-review | MPs occurrence in soil | Wang et al. (2019) |
Occurrence and ecological impacts of microplastics in soil systems: A review | MPs occurrence in soil | Zhu et al. (2019) |
Current practices and future perspectives of microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems in China | MPs occurrence in China’s freshwater | Fu and Wang (2019) |
Microplastic pollution in China's inland water systems: A review of findings, methods, characteristics, effects, and management | MPs occurrence in China’s inland water | Zhang et al. (2018) |
Occurrence, sources, human health impacts and mitigation of microplastic pollution | Terrestrial and aquatic MPs | Karbalaei et al. (2018) |
Microplastic in marine organism: Environmental and toxicological effects | Marine MPs ecological effects | Guzzetti et al. (2018) |
Marine microplastic debris: An emerging issue for food security, food safety and human health | Marine MPs ecological effects | Barboza et al. (2018) |
An overview of microplastic and nanoplastic pollution in agroecosystems | MPs occurrence in agroecosystems | Ng et al. (2018) |
Raman microspectroscopy as a tool for microplastic particle analysis | MPs analysis | Anger et al. (2018) |
Quality criteria for the analysis of microplastic in biota samples: A critical review | MPs analysis | Hermsen et al. (2018) |
Advancement and challenges of microplastic pollution in the aquatic environment: A review | MPs in aquatic environment | Yu et al. (2018) |
Microplastic pollution, a threat to marine ecosystem and human health: A short review | Marine MPs ecological effects | Sharma and Chatterjee (2017) |
Microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments: Evaluating the current understanding to identify the knowledge gaps and future research priorities | MPs occurrence | Horton et al. (2017) |
International policies to reduce plastic marine pollution from single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads): A review | Marine MPs control | Xanthos and Walker (2017) |
Interactions of microplastic debris throughout the marine ecosystem | Marine MPs ecological effects | Galloway et al. (2017) |
Identification methods in microplastic analysis: A review | MPs analysis | Shim et al. (2017) |
Microplastic in aquatic ecosystems | Aquatic MPs occurrence | Ivleva et al. (2017) |
Microplastic as a vector for chemicals in the aquatic environment: Critical review and model-supported reinterpretation of empirical studies | MPs in aquatic environments | Koelmans et al. (2016) |
Towards the suitable monitoring of ingestion of microplastics by marine biota: A review | Marine MPs analysis | Wesch et al. (2016) |
A critical view on microplastic quantification in aquatic organisms | MPs occurrence in aquatic environments | Vandermeersch et al. (2015) |
Microplastics in freshwater systems: A review of the emerging threats, identification of knowledge gaps and prioritisation of research needs | MPs occurrence in freshwater | Eerkes-Medrano et al. (2015) |
The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: A review | Marine MPs ecological effects | Wright et al. (2013) |
Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: A review | Marine MPs occurrence | Cole et al. (2011) |
Research Overview
On one hand, the identified primary sources of microplastic emission to the environment mainly include plastic pellets from industry, microfibers from clothing, microbeads from personal care products (PCPs) and paint, as well as MPs from washing wastewater, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), rubber road, artificial turf, and tire wear (An et al. 2020). For example, PCPs (e.g., makeup cosmetics, cleansing products) contain abundant microbeads (Nizzetto et al. 2016). Based on the microplastic contents in PCPs and their consumption levels, the global emission of PCP-derived MPs could reach (Sun et al. 2020). Generally, most PCP-derived MPs enter municipal sewage networks, along with runoff and other kinds of wastewater from domestic and industrial activities, all of which contain many kinds of MPs (Birch et al. 2020b). At present, conventional WWTPs are unable to completely remove MPs (Sun et al. 2019). Thus, emissions from WWTPs are considered as one of the main sources of MPs to the environment because plenty of effluent is directly discharged into surface water every year (Conley et al. 2019; Edo et al. 2020). In addition, activated sludge that accumulates most of the removed MPs (69%–80%) can be also an emission source if improperly managed (Li et al. 2018).
On the other hand, secondary sources of microplastic emissions are larger plastic products that are not properly disposed. Such sources mainly include farming film, fishing waste, and municipal debris from plastic bags, bottles, tableware, and packing products (Ng et al. 2018; An et al. 2020). Currently, secondary sources are estimated to emit the majority of MPs to the environment even though breaking large plastic waste into MPs under natural conditions takes years (An et al. 2020). For example, microplastic films and foams could be mainly sourced from the erosion of plastic bags and packing products that are essential items in humans’ daily lives (Zhou et al. 2020). Since the 1990s, they have been widely used because of their advantages of low cost, large capacity, light weight, and easy storage. Globally, up to plastic bags are consumed every year, and of the total plastic production is used for packing (UNEP 2016).
As microplastic pollution has been reported unceasingly, it is realized that this is an international environment problem that needs to be coped with. Currently, some international or national laws or regulations have been legislated to decrease microplastic emissions. In 2015, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) added plastic waste to the list of environmental issues that are worth constant concern. Many regions and countries have also launched restrictions on the single use of plastic bags and the addition of microbeads in PCPs (Xanthos and Walker 2017). For example, the Australian Capital Territory introduced a ban of single-use plastic bags in 2011, which led to the reduction of about 2,600 t of conventional polyethylene bag consumption by 2018 (Macintosh et al. 2020). A plastic bag ban policy in Scotland also prevented approximately 650 million plastic bags from entering waste streams (Sharma and Chatterjee 2017). The federal administrations of Canada, Australia, Austria, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Sweden, and Germany imposed an all-out ban for the application of microbeads in PCPs (Reed and Perschbacher 2016). More recently, the European Union (EU) has put forward a Europe-wide plastic strategy as a portion of the transition to the circular economy (Pico et al. 2019). Based on this strategy, the consumption of disposable plastics will be significantly decreased and all plastic materials for packing will be recyclable in EU markets by 2030.
In addition to regulatory and social measures, remediation technologies have also been investigated to control microplastic pollution. The primary applications of technologies such as sedimentation, coagulation, air flotation, activated sludge, sand filter, membrane separation, and membrane bioreactor for microplastic removal from wastewater have been summarized in several reviews (Bui et al. 2020; Cristaldi et al. 2020; Zhang and Chen 2020). The existing knowledge of MPs removal in drinking water through traditional treatment processes, electrocoagulation, magnetic extraction, and membrane separation has also been discussed (Krause et al. 2020; Shen et al. 2020). However, due to limitations of these technologies and the complex properties of MPs, there are many challenges associated with the development and evaluation of these technologies.
Main Research Gaps
To date, hundreds of studies have documented microplastic occurrences, characteristics, and ecological effects in a wide range of environments (Table 1). However, these studies mainly focused on aquatic environments, such as marine, rivers, and lakes. Few studies have focused on soil environments and agroecosystems. There are gaps in understanding the occurrences and characteristics of atmospheric MPs, as well as limited knowledge on their fate and transport. Several reviews began to analyze the current status of knowledge on atmospheric MPs, and highlight future research needs in identifying their potential impacts on human health (Chen et al. 2020a, b; Huang et al. 2020; Mbachu et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2020b). While still limited, research has been expanded to include specific environments, such as urban watershed, drinking water, and WWTP (Sun et al. 2019; Birch et al. 2020b; Danopoulos et al. 2020).
Another noteworthy research gap in the study of MPs in the environment is emission source apportionment, particularly for atmospheric MPs. For example, studies on microplastic pollution in land-based watersheds have identified many sources, such as discharge from treated wastewater and plastic waste from industrial, commercial, and agricultural activities (Law 2017; Su et al. 2020). However, the relative contributions of these sources to microplastic pollution remain controversial. Each type of microplastic may come from a variety of sources. Due to the differences in plastic production types, waste disposal processes, and environmental conditions in different regions, the efforts for identifying microplastic sources may suffer from various uncertainties. Additionally, global monitoring data of environmental MPs are far from sufficient. For instance, although microplastic pollution occurs globally, the monitoring results may not be enough to form a global distribution map. Such a knowledge gap limits the evaluation of global microplastic emissions to the environment. Thus, more research is needed to better understand the source apportionment of microplastic emissions.
Finally, crucial knowledge gaps exist in the development of microplastic removal technologies and environmental limits. For example, several technologies were studied for removing MPs from water and wastewater (Padervand et al. 2020; Zhang and Chen 2020). However, there have been only limited or no research about MPs in soil or atmosphere. In addition, no governmental legislative standard for MPs in the environment has been issued.
Research Challenges
To improve the understanding of microplastic emissions and their control, more research is needed to fill the mentioned gaps. Several challenges exist in conducting related studies. First, standardized methodologies for microplastic sample collection, extraction, and identification are desired, though researchers have been making progress (Zarfl 2019; Birch et al. 2020a). These are greatly linked to the reliability for comparative studies of research findings, such that the meta-analyses of global microplastic emissions, the development of reliable monitoring strategies, and the implementation of appropriate mitigation measures can be accomplished.
Second, MPs are highly heterogeneous mixtures that contain multiple types of solid polymers with different densities, sizes, and shapes, leading to intensified complexities in the related methodologies and their implications. For instance, the available microplastic data from field sampling mainly focus on sizes larger than , while the information on smaller MPs is much less. The information of nanoplastics is even less. However, most of the existing technologies are incapable of characterizing small-size MPs (e.g., Fourier transform infrared spectrometry , Raman spectroscopy ) (Granek et al. 2020). This leads to difficulties to adequately study MPs in such small sizes. Consequently, the emissions of MPs with all size classes can hardly be quantified. In addition, the shape and polymer type of MPs may also influence the effectiveness of relevant mitigation measures. Understanding the complexity of MPs (including nanoplastics) is a challenge for researchers in this field.
Third, MPs can transport and enter the environment through multiple pathways, such as surface runoff, atmospheric deposition, and drainage. The evaluation and management of microplastic pollution from non-point sources are more difficult than those for point sources because it is hard to regulate and locate the emission contributors. For example, WWTPs, plastic industries, and fishing activities have been identified as main point sources of microplastic pollution in aquatic environments (Estahbanati and Fahrenfeld 2016; Su et al. 2020; Zhou et al. 2021). Thus, efforts have been made to reduce the contents of microbeads in PCPs and control microplastic emissions from WWTPs (Lares et al. 2018; Ngo et al. 2019). However, microplastic pollution from non-point sources has rarely been studied, and the mechanisms for the fate and transport of MPs are relatively unclear.
In addition to the preceding challenges, issues of inevitably massive emission, inappropriate management, and improper disposal of plastic waste also exist. Since plastic was invented, a huge volume of plastic waste has entered the environment, while the use of plastic is still increasing (Geyer et al. 2017). Thus, the challenge of massive emissions may continue to exist, although efforts are being made to improve this situation.
Perspectives and Solutions
For MPs that have been discharged to the environment, it is difficult to clean them up through conventional means. Efforts should be made on the reduction of microplastic emissions and the removal of MPs at sources. First, there is a great need to establish effective policies and regulations to reduce microplastic emission and enhance public awareness of microplastic pollution. Environmental conservation agencies are getting a better understanding of this issue and making efforts to develop and implement relevant strategies (Xanthos and Walker 2017). These efforts are focused on public participation, such as reduction of plastics consumption, before more ambitious recycling/recovery targets are established. Additionally, there are increasing efforts in developing standardized protocols and quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) techniques to improve the reliability of investigations about microplastic pollution. For example, Elkhatib and Oyanedel-Craver (2020) developed a ranking system to evaluate the extraction and identification methods of MPs in wastewater and drinking water. The development and standardization for analytical methods of atmospheric microplastic pollution are particularly desired. Moreover, research endeavors in the following aspects should be highlighted.
The first is the development of biodegradable plastics that are environment friendly, so as to mitigate the microplastic emission and accumulation in the environment. With the promulgation and implementation of policies to limit the use of traditional plastics in various regions, the demand for degradable plastics will significantly increase. There has thus been growing research on the issue of plastic biodegradability (Lambert and Wagner 2017). For example, many kinds of bio-based plastics have been made from renewable materials, such as starch, cellulose, and lignin (RameshKumar et al. 2020). Microalgae and food waste are also applied as feedstocks of bio-based polymers (Zhang et al. 2019). However, the high price of biodegradable plastics and the unclear ecological and societal implications may limit their applications.
The second is the advancement of microbial technologies to facilitate plastic/microplastic degradation. Microorganisms that are capable of utilizing synthetic polymers can be identified and isolated to degrade plastics (Ganesh Kumar et al. 2020; Yuan et al. 2020). Several specialized bacteria have been found to have the ability to break down poly(ethylene terephthalate) plastics through enzymatic hydrolysis (Yoshida et al. 2016; Kawai et al. 2019). If superbacteria can be cultivated to degrade MPs, it will provide a promising approach for microplastic pollution control.
Additionally, effective plastic waste management and recycling should be promoted at community and jurisdictional levels. Mismanagement of plastic waste is considered a major cause of microplastic pollution (Ni et al. 2020). It was estimated that only 9% of waste plastics were recycled by 2015 (Lambert and Wagner 2017). In 2015 alone, up to 60–99 million tons of plastic waste were produced due to mismanagement (Ni et al. 2020). However, conventional facilities of solid waste management, such as landfills and incinerators, may also release MPs to the environment, though they can stock or eliminate most plastic waste. For example, landfilling is a potential source of abundant MPs in leachate (He et al. 2019); also, a considerable amount of MPs is found in the bottom ash of incinerators (Yang et al. 2020). The importance of upgrading relevant technologies to enhance plastic waste management has become evident.
In such ongong efforts, the involvement of environmental engineers is critical to intensify the identification of environmentally sustainable solutions to the prevention, minimization, and remediation of pollution due to microplastics. In particular, environmental engineers should play key roles in research and development (R&D) of innovative technologies for battling microplastic pollution in ambient atmosphere, surface water, and soil/aquifer systems, as well as their impacts on human health and ecosystems.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by Environment and Climate Change Canada’s Increasing Knowledge on Plastic Pollution Initiative, and the University of Cincinnati through the Herman Schneider Professorship in the College of Engineering and Applied Sciences.
References
Akdogan, Z., and B. Guven. 2019. “Microplastics in the environment: A critical review of current understanding and identification of future research needs.” Environ. Pollut. 254 (Nov): 113011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113011.
An, L., Q. Liu, Y. Deng, W. Wu, Y. Gao, and W. Ling. 2020. “Sources of microplastic in the environment.” In Microplastics in terrestrial environments: Emerging contaminants and major challenges, 143–159. Berlin: Springer.
Anger, P. M., E. von der Esch, T. Baumann, M. Elsner, R. Niessner, and N. P. Ivleva. 2018. “Raman microspectroscopy as a tool for microplastic particle analysis.” TRAC Trends Anal. Chem. 109 (Dec): 214–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.10.010.
Barboza, L. G. A., A. D. Vethaak, B. R. Lavorante, A.-K. Lundebye, and L. Guilhermino. 2018. “Marine microplastic debris: An emerging issue for food security, food safety and human health.” Mar. Pollut. Bull. 133 (Aug): 336–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.05.047.
Birch, Q. T., P. M. Potter, P. X. Pinto, D. D. Dionysiou, and S. R. Al-Abed. 2020a. “Isotope ratio mass spectrometry and spectroscopic techniques for microplastics characterization.” Talanta 224 (Mar): 121743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121743.
Birch, Q. T., P. M. Potter, P. X. Pinto, D. D. Dionysiou, and S. R. Al-Abed. 2020b. “Sources, transport, measurement and impact of nano and microplastics in urban watersheds.” Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 19 (Apr): 275–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-020-09529-x.
Botterell, Z. L. R., N. Beaumont, T. Dorrington, M. Steinke, R. C. Thompson, and P. K. Lindeque. 2019. “Bioavailability and effects of microplastics on marine zooplankton: A review.” Environ. Pollut. 245 (Feb): 98–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.065.
Bui, X.-T., P.-T. Nguyen, V.-T. Nguyen, T.-S. Dao, and P.-D. Nguyen. 2020. “Microplastics pollution in wastewater: Characteristics, occurrence and removal technologies.” Environ. Technol. Innovation 19 (Aug): 101013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.101013.
Burrows, S. D., S. Frustaci, K. V. Thomas, and T. Galloway. 2020. “Expanding exploration of dynamic microplastic surface characteristics and interactions.” TRAC Trends Anal. Chem. 130 (Aug): 115993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2020.115993.
Chen, G., Q. Feng, and J. Wang. 2020a. “Mini-review of microplastics in the atmosphere and their risks to humans.” Sci. Total Environ. 703 (Feb): 135504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135504.
Chen, G., Z. Fu, H. Yang, and J. Wang. 2020b. “An overview of analytical methods for detecting microplastics in the atmosphere.” TRAC Trends Anal. Chem. 130 (Jul): 115981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2020.115981.
Cheng, H., H. Luo, Y. Hu, and S. Tao. 2020. “Release kinetics as a key linkage between the occurrence of flame retardants in microplastics and their risk to the environment and ecosystem: A critical review.” Water Res. 185 (Oct): 116253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116253.
Cole, M., P. Lindeque, C. Halsband, and T. S. Galloway. 2011. “Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: A review.” Mar. Pollut. Bull. 62 (12): 2588–2597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.09.025.
Conley, K., A. Clum, J. Deepe, H. Lane, and B. Beckingham. 2019. “Wastewater treatment plants as a source of microplastics to an urban estuary: Removal efficiencies and loading per capita over one year.” Water Res. X 3 (Apr): 100030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wroa.2019.100030.
Cristaldi, A., M. Fiore, P. Zuccarello, G. Oliveri Conti, A. Grasso, I. Nicolosi, C. Copat, and M. Ferrante. 2020. “Efficiency of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) for microplastic removal: A systematic review.” Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17 (21): 8014. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218014.
Danopoulos, E., M. Twiddy, and J. M. Rotchell. 2020. “Microplastic contamination of drinking water: A systematic review.” PLoS One 15 (7): e0236838. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236838.
de Ruijter, V. N., P. E. Redondo-Hasselerharm, T. Gouin, and A. A. Koelmans. 2020. “Quality criteria for microplastic effect studies in the context of risk assessment: A critical review.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 54 (19): 11692–11705. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c03057.
Edo, C., M. González-Pleiter, F. Leganés, F. Fernández-Piñas, and R. Rosal. 2020. “Fate of microplastics in wastewater treatment plants and their environmental dispersion with effluent and sludge.” Environ. Pollut. 259 (Apr): 113837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113837.
Eerkes-Medrano, D., R. C. Thompson, and D. C. Aldridge. 2015. “Microplastics in freshwater systems: A review of the emerging threats, identification of knowledge gaps and prioritisation of research needs.” Water Res. 75 (May): 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.012.
Elkhatib, D., and V. Oyanedel-Craver. 2020. “A critical review of extraction and identification methods of microplastics in wastewater and drinking water.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 54 (12): 7037–7049. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b06672.
Enyoh, C. E., A. W. Verla, E. N. Verla, F. C. Ibe, and C. E. Amaobi. 2019. “Airborne microplastics: A review study on method for analysis, occurrence, movement and risks.” Environ. Monit. Assess. 191 (11): 668. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7842-0.
Estahbanati, S., and N. L. Fahrenfeld. 2016. “Influence of wastewater treatment plant discharges on microplastic concentrations in surface water.” Chemosphere 162 (Nov): 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.083.
Fok, L., T. W. L. Lam, H.-X. Li, and X.-R. Xu. 2020. “A meta-analysis of methodologies adopted by microplastic studies in China.” Sci. Total Environ. 718 (May): 135371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135371.
Fu, D., C. M. Chen, H. Qi, Z. Fan, Z. Wang, L. Peng, and B. Li. 2020a. “Occurrences and distribution of microplastic pollution and the control measures in China.” Mar. Pollut. Bull. 153 (Apr): 110963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.110963.
Fu, Z., G. Chen, W. Wang, and J. Wang. 2020b. “Microplastic pollution research methodologies, abundance, characteristics and risk assessments for aquatic biota in China.” Environ. Pollut. 266 (Jun): 115098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115098.
Fu, Z., and J. Wang. 2019. “Current practices and future perspectives of microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems in China.” Sci. Total Environ. 691 (Nov): 697–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.167.
Galloway, T. S., M. Cole, and C. Lewis. 2017. “Interactions of microplastic debris throughout the marine ecosystem.” Nat. Ecol. Evol. 1 (5): 0116. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0116.
Ganesh Kumar, A., K. Anjana, M. Hinduja, K. Sujitha, and G. Dharani. 2020. “Review on plastic wastes in marine environment—Biodegradation and biotechnological solutions.” Mar. Pollut. Bull. 150 (Jan): 110733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110733.
Geyer, R., J. R. Jambeck, and K. L. Law. 2017. “Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.” Sci. Adv. 3 (7): e1700782. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782.
Gouin, T. 2020. “Toward an improved understanding of the ingestion and trophic transfer of microplastic particles: Critical review and implications for future research.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 39 (6): 1119–1137. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4718.
Gouin, T., R. A. Becker, A.-G. Collot, J. W. Davis, B. Howard, K. Inawaka, M. Lampi, B. S. Ramon, J. Shi, and P. W. Hopp. 2019. “Toward the development and application of an environmental risk assessment framework for microplastic.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 38 (10): 2087–2100. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4529.
Granek, E. F., S. Brander, and E. Holland. 2020. “Microplastics in aquatic organisms: Improving understanding and identifying research directions for the next decade.” Limnol. Oceanogr. Lett. 5 (1): 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1002/lol2.10145.
Guo, J.-J., X.-P. Huang, L. Xiang, Y.-Z. Wang, Y.-W. Li, H. Li, Q.-Y. Cai, C.-H. Mo, and M.-H. Wong. 2020. “Source, migration and toxicology of microplastics in soil.” Environ. Int. 137 (Apr): 105263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105263.
Guzzetti, E., A. Sureda, S. Tejada, and C. Faggio. 2018. “Microplastic in marine organism: Environmental and toxicological effects.” Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 64 (Dec): 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2018.10.009.
Harris, P. T. 2020. “The fate of microplastic in marine sedimentary environments: A review and synthesis.” Mar. Pollut. Bull. 158 (Sep): 111398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111398.
He, P., L. Chen, L. Shao, H. Zhang, and F. Lü. 2019. “Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill: A source of microplastics? Evidence of microplastics in landfill leachate.” Water Res. 159 (Aug): 38–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.04.060.
Hermsen, E., S. M. Mintenig, E. Besseling, and A. A. Koelmans. 2018. “Quality criteria for the analysis of microplastic in biota samples: A critical review.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 52 (18): 10230–10240. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b01611.
Horton, A. A., A. Walton, D. J. Spurgeon, E. Lahive, and C. Svendsen. 2017. “Microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments: Evaluating the current understanding to identify the knowledge gaps and future research priorities.” Sci. Total Environ. 586 (May): 127–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.190.
Hu, Y., M. Gong, J. Wang, and A. Bassi. 2019. “Current research trends on microplastic pollution from wastewater systems: A critical review.” Rev. Environ. Sci. BioTechnol. 18 (2): 207–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-019-09498-w.
Huang, Y., X. Qing, W. Wang, G. Han, and J. Wang. 2020. “Mini-review on current studies of airborne microplastics: Analytical methods, occurrence, sources, fate and potential risk to human beings.” TRAC Trends Anal. Chem. 125 (Apr): 115821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2020.115821.
Ivleva, N. P., A. C. Wiesheu, and R. Niessner. 2017. “Microplastic in aquatic ecosystems.” Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 56 (7): 1720–1739. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201606957.
Karbalaei, S., P. Hanachi, T. R. Walker, and M. Cole. 2018. “Occurrence, sources, human health impacts and mitigation of microplastic pollution.” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 25 (36): 36046–36063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3508-7.
Kawai, F., T. Kawabata, and M. Oda. 2019. “Current knowledge on enzymatic PET degradation and its possible application to waste stream management and other fields.” Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 103 (11): 4253–4268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-019-09717-y.
Koelmans, A. A., A. Bakir, G. A. Burton, and C. R. Janssen. 2016. “Microplastic as a vector for chemicals in the aquatic environment: Critical review and model-supported reinterpretation of empirical studies.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 50 (7): 3315–3326. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b06069.
Koelmans, A. A., N. H. Mohamed Nor, E. Hermsen, M. Kooi, S. M. Mintenig, and J. De France. 2019. “Microplastics in freshwaters and drinking water: Critical review and assessment of data quality.” Water Res. 155 (May): 410–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.02.054.
Krause, S., V. Baranov, H. A. Nel, J. Drummond, A. Kukkola, T. Hoellein, G. S. Smith, J. Lewandowski, B. Bonnet, and A. I. Packman. 2020. “Gathering at the top? Environmental controls of microplastic uptake and biomagnification in freshwater food webs.” Environ. Pollut. 268 (Jan): 115750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115750.
Lambert, S., and M. Wagner. 2017. “Environmental performance of bio-based and biodegradable plastics: The road ahead.” Chem. Soc. Rev. 46 (22): 6855–6871. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7CS00149E.
Lares, M., M. C. Ncibi, M. Sillanpää, and M. Sillanpää. 2018. “Occurrence, identification and removal of microplastic particles and fibers in conventional activated sludge process and advanced MBR technology.” Water Res. 133 (Apr): 236–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.01.049.
Law, K. L. 2017. “Plastics in the marine environment.” Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 9 (1): 205–229. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010816-060409.
Li, C., R. Busquets, and L. C. Campos. 2020. “Assessment of microplastics in freshwater systems: A review.” Sci. Total Environ. 707 (Mar): 135578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135578.
Li, X., L. Chen, Q. Mei, B. Dong, X. Dai, G. Ding, and E. Y. Zeng. 2018. “Microplastics in sewage sludge from the wastewater treatment plants in China.” Water Res. 142 (Oct): 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.034.
Liu, X., H. Shi, B. Xie, D. D. Dionysiou, and Y. Zhao. 2019. “Microplastics as both a sink and a source of bisphenol A in the marine environment.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 53 (17): 10188–10196. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b02834.
Macintosh, A., A. Simpson, T. Neeman, and K. Dickson. 2020. “Plastic bag bans: Lessons from the Australian Capital Territory.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 154 (Mar): 104638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104638.
Mbachu, O., G. Jenkins, C. Pratt, and P. Kaparaju. 2020. “A new contaminant superhighway? A review of sources, measurement techniques and fate of atmospheric microplastics.” Water Air Soil Pollut. 231 (2): 85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-4459-4.
Meng, Y., F. J. Kelly, and S. L. Wright. 2020. “Advances and challenges of microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems: A UK perspective.” Environ. Pollut. 256 (Jan): 113445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113445.
Möller, J. N., M. G. J. Löder, and C. Laforsch. 2020. “Finding microplastics in soils: A review of analytical methods.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 54 (4): 2078–2090. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b04618.
Naqash, N., S. Prakash, D. Kapoor, and R. Singh. 2020. “Interaction of freshwater microplastics with biota and heavy metals: A review.” Environ. Chem. Lett. 18 (6): 1813–1824. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01044-3.
Ng, E.-L., E. H. Lwanga, S. M. Eldridge, P. Johnston, H.-W. Hu, V. Geissen, and D. Chen. 2018. “An overview of microplastic and nanoplastic pollution in agroecosystems.” Sci. Total Environ. 627 (Jun): 1377–1388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.341.
Ngo, P. L., B. K. Pramanik, K. Shah, and R. Roychand. 2019. “Pathway, classification and removal efficiency of microplastics in wastewater treatment plants.” Environ. Pollut. 255 (Dec): 113326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113326.
Ni, B.-J., Z.-R. Zhu, W.-H. Li, X. Yan, W. Wei, Q. Xu, Z. Xia, X. Dai, and J. Sun. 2020. “Microplastics mitigation in sewage sludge through pyrolysis: The role of pyrolysis temperature.” Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 7 (12): 961–967. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00740.
Nizzetto, L., G. Bussi, M. N. Futter, D. Butterfield, and P. G. Whitehead. 2016. “A theoretical assessment of microplastic transport in river catchments and their retention by soils and river sediments.” Environ. Sci. Processes Impacts 18 (8): 1050–1059. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EM00206D.
Padervand, M., E. Lichtfouse, D. Robert, and C. Wang. 2020. “Removal of microplastics from the environment. A review.” Environ. Chem. Lett. 18 (3): 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-00983-1.
Pereao, O., B. Opeolu, and O. Fatoki. 2020. “Microplastics in aquatic environment: Characterization, ecotoxicological effect, implications for ecosystems and developments in South Africa.” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27 (18): 22271–22291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08688-2.
Pico, Y., A. Alfarhan, and D. Barcelo. 2019. “Nano-and microplastic analysis: Focus on their occurrence in freshwater ecosystems and remediation technologies.” TRAC Trends Anal. Chem. 113 (Apr): 409–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.08.022.
Pirsaheb, M., H. Hossini, and P. Makhdoumi. 2020. “Review of microplastic occurrence and toxicological effects in marine environment: Experimental evidence of inflammation.” Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 142 (Jun): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2020.05.050.
PlasticsEurope. 2019. Plastics—The facts 2019. An analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data. Brussels, Belgium: PlasticsEurope.
Prata, J. C., A. L. P. Silva, J. P. Da Costa, C. Mouneyrac, T. R. Walker, A. C. Duarte, and T. Rocha-Santos. 2019. “Solutions and integrated strategies for the control and mitigation of plastic and microplastic pollution.” Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16 (13): 2411. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132411.
Qi, R., D. L. Jones, Z. Li, Q. Liu, and C. Yan. 2020. “Behavior of microplastics and plastic film residues in the soil environment: A critical review.” Sci. Total Environ. 703 (Feb): 134722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134722.
RameshKumar, S., P. Shaiju, and K. E. O’Connor. 2020. “Bio-based and biodegradable polymers—State-of-the-art, challenges and emerging trends.” Curr. Opin. Green Sustainable Chem. 21 (Feb): 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2019.12.005.
Reed, A., and E. Perschbacher. 2016. “Microbeads—Legislative update.” Accessed March 5, 2021. https://www.ijc.org/en/microbeads-legislative-update.
Sarker, A., D. M. Deepo, R. Nandi, J. Rana, S. Islam, S. Rahman, M. N. Hossain, M. S. Islam, A. Baroi, and J.-E. Kim. 2020. “A review of microplastics pollution in the soil and terrestrial ecosystems: A global and Bangladesh perspective.” Sci. Total Environ. 733 (May): 139296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139296.
Schernewski, G., H. Radtke, R. Hauk, C. Baresel, M. Olshammar, R. Osinski, and S. Oberbeckmann. 2020. “Transport and behavior of microplastics emissions from urban sources in the Baltic Sea.” Front. Environ. Sci. 8 (170): 19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.579361.
Sharma, S., and S. Chatterjee. 2017. “Microplastic pollution, a threat to marine ecosystem and human health: A short review.” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 24 (27): 21530–21547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9910-8.
Shen, M., B. Song, Y. Zhu, G. Zeng, Y. Zhang, Y. Yang, X. Wen, M. Chen, and H. Yi. 2020. “Removal of microplastics via drinking water treatment: Current knowledge and future directions.” Chemosphere 251 (Jul): 126612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126612.
Shim, W. J., S. H. Hong, and S. E. Eo. 2017. “Identification methods in microplastic analysis: A review.” Anal. Methods 9 (9): 1384–1391. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6AY02558G.
Skalska, K., A. Ockelford, J. E. Ebdon, and A. B. Cundy. 2020. “Riverine microplastics: Behaviour, spatio-temporal variability, and recommendations for standardised sampling and monitoring.” J. Water Process Eng. 38 (Dec): 101600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101600.
Stock, F., C. Kochleus, B. Bänsch-Baltruschat, N. Brennholt, and G. Reifferscheid. 2019. “Sampling techniques and preparation methods for microplastic analyses in the aquatic environment—A review.” TRAC Trends Anal. Chem. 113 (Apr): 84–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2019.01.014.
Su, L., S. M. Sharp, V. J. Pettigrove, N. J. Craig, B. Nan, F. Du, and H. Shi. 2020. “Superimposed microplastic pollution in a coastal metropolis.” Water Res. 168 (Jan): 115140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.115140.
Sun, J., X. Dai, Q. Wang, M. C. van Loosdrecht, and B.-J. Ni. 2019. “Microplastics in wastewater treatment plants: Detection, occurrence and removal.” Water Res. 152 (Apr): 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.050.
Sun, Q., S.-Y. Ren, and H.-G. Ni. 2020. “Incidence of microplastics in personal care products: An appreciable part of plastic pollution.” Sci. Total Environ. 742 (Nov): 140218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140218.
Tang, Y., Y. Liu, Y. Chen, W. Zhang, J. Zhao, S. He, C. Yang, T. Zhang, C. Tang, C. Zhang, and Z. Yang. 2020. “A review: Research progress on microplastic pollutants in aquatic environments.” Sci. Total Environ. 766 (Apr): 142572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142572.
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2016. Marine plastic debris and microplastics—Global lessons and research to inspire action and guide policy change. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP.
Vandermeersch, G., et al. 2015. “A critical view on microplastic quantification in aquatic organisms.” Environ. Res. 143 (Nov): 46–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.07.016.
Veerasingam, S., et al. 2020. “Contributions of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy in microplastic pollution research: A review.” Crit. Rev. Env. Sci. Technol. 1–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2020.1807450.
Wang, J., X. Liu, Y. Li, T. Powell, X. Wang, G. Wang, and P. Zhang. 2019. “Microplastics as contaminants in the soil environment: A mini-review.” Sci. Total Environ. 691 (Nov): 848–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.209.
Wang, W., J. Ge, and X. Yu. 2020. “Bioavailability and toxicity of microplastics to fish species: A review.” Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 189 (Feb): 109913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109913.
Wesch, C., K. Bredimus, M. Paulus, and R. Klein. 2016. “Towards the suitable monitoring of ingestion of microplastics by marine biota: A review.” Environ. Pollut. 218 (Nov): 1200–1208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.076.
Wright, S. L., R. C. Thompson, and T. S. Galloway. 2013. “The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: A review.” Environ. Pollut. 178 (Jul): 483–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.031.
Xanthos, D., and T. R. Walker. 2017. “International policies to reduce plastic marine pollution from single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads): A review.” Mar. Pollut. Bull. 118 (1): 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.02.048.
Xu, B., et al. 2020a. “Microplastics in the soil environment: Occurrence, risks, interactions and fate—A review.” Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50 (21): 2175–2222. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2019.1694822.
Xu, Y., et al. 2020b. “A critical review of microplastic pollution in urban freshwater environments and legislative progress in China: Recommendations and insights.” Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2020.1801308.
Yang, Z., F. Lü, H. Zhang, W. Wang, L. Shao, J. Ye, and P. He. 2020. “Is incineration the terminator of plastics and microplastics?” J. Hazard. Mater. 401 (Jan): 123429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123429.
Yin, J., G. Huang, M. Li, and C. An. 2021. “Will the chemical contaminants in agricultural soil affect the ecotoxicity of microplastics?” ACS Agric. Sci. Technol. 1 (1): 3–4. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsagscitech.0c00005.
Yoshida, S., K. Hiraga, T. Takehana, I. Taniguchi, H. Yamaji, Y. Maeda, K. Toyohara, K. Miyamoto, Y. Kimura, and K. Oda. 2016. “A bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly(ethylene terephthalate).” Science 351 (6278): 1196. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad6359.
Yu, Y., D. Zhou, Z. Li, and C. Zhu. 2018. “Advancement and challenges of microplastic pollution in the aquatic environment: A review.” Water Air Soil Pollut. 229 (5): 140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-018-3788-z.
Yuan, J., J. Ma, Y. Sun, T. Zhou, Y. Zhao, and F. Yu. 2020. “Microbial degradation and other environmental aspects of microplastics/plastics.” Sci. Total Environ. 715 (May): 136968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136968.
Zarfl, C. 2019. “Promising techniques and open challenges for microplastic identification and quantification in environmental matrices.” Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 411 (17): 3743–3756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-019-01763-9.
Zhang, C., P.-L. Show, and S.-H. Ho. 2019. “Progress and perspective on algal plastics—A critical review.” Bioresour. Technol. 289 (Oct): 121700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.121700.
Zhang, K., H. Shi, J. Peng, Y. Wang, X. Xiong, C. Wu, and P. K. Lam. 2018. “Microplastic pollution in China's inland water systems: A review of findings, methods, characteristics, effects, and management.” Sci. Total Environ. 630 (Jul): 1641–1653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.300.
Zhang, Y., et al. 2020a. “How climate change and eutrophication interact with microplastic pollution and sediment resuspension in shallow lakes: A review.” Sci. Total Environ. 705 (May): 135979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135979.
Zhang, Y., S. Kang, S. Allen, D. Allen, T. Gao, and M. Sillanpää. 2020b. “Atmospheric microplastics: A review on current status and perspectives.” Earth Sci. Rev. 203 (Apr): 103118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103118.
Zhang, Z., and Y. Chen. 2020. “Effects of microplastics on wastewater and sewage sludge treatment and their removal: A review.” Chem. Eng. J. 382 (9): 122955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.122955.
Zhou, A., Y. Zhang, S. Xie, Y. Chen, X. Li, J. Wang, and J. Zou. 2021. “Microplastics and their potential effects on the aquaculture systems: A critical review.” Rev. Aquacult. 13 (1): 719–733. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12496.
Zhou, Y., J. Wang, M. Zou, Z. Jia, and S. Zhou. 2020. “Microplastics in soils: A review of methods, occurrence, fate, transport, ecological and environmental risks.” Sci. Total Environ. 748 (Dec): 141368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141368.
Zhu, F., C. Zhu, C. Wang, and C. Gu. 2019. “Occurrence and ecological impacts of microplastics in soil systems: A review.” Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 102 (6): 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-019-02623-z.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 11, 2021
Accepted: Apr 5, 2021
Published online: Jun 23, 2021
Published in print: Sep 1, 2021
Discussion open until: Nov 23, 2021
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.