A GIS-Based Method for Identifying Rainwater Harvesting: A Case Study of Sulaimanyah Governorate, Iraq
This article has been corrected.
VIEW CORRECTIONPublication: Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
Volume 150, Issue 2
Abstract
Iraq has been plagued with extreme droughts in the last two decades, resulting in a significant decrease in rainfall. Water harvesting has become essential for addressing these droughts. Building dams for rainwater harvesting can help mitigate the effects of drought and provide water resources. Rainwater conservation is a commonly employed method in drought-prone regions. The objective of this research is to identify suitable locations for rainwater harvesting and dam construction in the Sulaimanyah Governorate. The study relied on several criteria, including rainfall data, runoff, slope, land cover/use, stream order, soil quality, and hydrological soil group, to assess the area’s suitability for water harvesting through dam utilization. To obtain the land use and land cover map, a Sentinel-1 image from 2020 was used in conjunction with unsupervised classification using ERDAS Imagine software version 9.1. Additionally, a digital elevation model was utilized to extract stream order, contour lines, and slope maps. The rainfall data were spatially interpolated using inverse distance weighting (IDW). The findings indicated that suitable water storage sites are primarily located in the north, northeast, and some parts of the center of the study area The study categorized 27.5% of the regions as highly suitable and 7.6% as medium-high suitable. Additionally, 0.7% and 10.1% of the study area were classified as moderately suitable and low suitable, respectively, while 54.1% was deemed unsuitable.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
This research received no external funding.
Author contributions: Conceptualization, Gaylan R. Faqe Ibrahim; data curation, Gaylan R. Faqe Ibrahim; formal analysis, Gaylan R. Faqe Ibrahim; methodology, Gaylan R. Faqe Ibrahim; software, Gaylan R. Faqe Ibrahim; validation, Gaylan R. Faqe Ibrahim; visualization, Gaylan R. Faqe Ibrahim; writing–original draft, Gaylan R. Faqe Ibrahim; and writing–review and editing, Azad Rasul, Bakhtiar Osman Khzr, Pakiza A Saied, Ariean Ali Hamid Ali Mala Khedir Galalaey, Shwan Ahmad Ail, and Chiya Sami Sulaiman.
References
Abdulla, F. A., J. A. Amayreh, and A. H. Hossain. 2002. “Single event watershed model for simulating runoff hydrograph in desert regions.” Water Resour. Manage. 16 (Jun): 221–238. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020258808869.
Abdullah, M., N. Al-Ansari, and J. Laue. 2020. “Water harvesting in Iraq: Status and opportunities.” J. Earth Sci. Geotech. Eng. 10 (1): 199–217.
Aghaloo, K., and Y. Chiu. 2020. “Identifying optimal sites for a rainwater-harvesting agricultural scheme in Iran using the best-worst method and fuzzy logic in a GIS-based decision support system.” Water 12 (7): 1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12071913.
Ajibade, T. F., N. A. Nwogwu, F. O. Ajibade, B. Adelodun, T. E. Idowu, A. O. Ojo, J. O. Iji, O. O. Olajire, and O. K. Akinmusere. 2020. “Potential dam sites selection using integrated techniques of remote sensing and GIS in Imo State, Southeastern, Nigeria.” Sustainable Water Resour. Manage. 6 (4): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-020-00416-5.
Al-Ansari, N. 2013. “Management of water resources in Iraq: Perspectives and prognoses.” Engineering 5 (8): 667–684. https://doi.org/10.4236/eng.2013.58080.
Al-Hanbali, A., B. Alsaaideh, and A. Kondoh. 2011. “Using GIS-based weighted linear combination analysis and remote sensing techniques to select optimum solid waste disposal sites within Mafraq City, Jordan.” J. Geogr. Inf. Syst. 3 (4): 267–278. https://doi.org/10.4236/jgis.2011.34023.
Alim, M. A., A. Rahman, Z. Tao, B. Samali, M. M. Khan, and S. Shirin. 2020. “Suitability of roof harvested rainwater for potential potable water production: A scoping review.” J. Cleaner Prod. 248 (Mar): 119226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119226.
Ammar, A., M. Riksen, M. Ouessar, and C. Ritsema. 2016. “Identification of suitable sites for rainwater harvesting structures in arid and semi-arid regions: A review.” Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res. 4 (2): 108–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2016.03.001.
Bellehumeur, C., L. Vasseur, C. Ansseau, and B. Marcos. 1997. “Implementation of a multicriteria sewage sludge management model in the southern Quebec municipality of Lac-Megantic, Canada.” J. Environ. Manage. 50 (1): 51–66. https://doi.org/10.1006/jema.1996.0090.
Bormann, H., and B. Diekkrüger. 2003. “Possibilities and limitations of regional hydrological models applied within an environmental change study in Benin (West Africa).” Phys. Chem. Earth 28 (33–36): 1323–1332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2003.09.008.
Campisano, A., D. Di Liberto, C. Modica, and S. Reitano. 2014. “Potential for peak flow reduction by rainwater harvesting tanks.” Procedia Eng. 89 (Mar): 1507–1514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.11.441.
Charlesworth, S. M., C. A. Booth, F. Warwick, C. Lashford, and O. O. Lade. 2014. “Rainwater harvesting—Reaping a free and plentiful supply of water.” In Water resources in the built environment: Management issues and solutions, 151–164. New York: Wiley.
Cook, S., A. Sharma, and M. Chong. 2013. “Performance analysis of a communal residential rainwater system for potable supply: A case study in Brisbane, Australia.” Water Resour. Manage. 27 (May): 4865–4876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-013-0443-8.
Critchley, W., and C. Siegert. 1991. Water harvesting manual. FAO Paper AGL. No. MISC/17/91. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
Critchley, W., K. Siegert, and C. Chapman. 1991. Water harvesting: A manual for the design and construction of water harvesting schemes for plant production. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
Das, D. B. 2019. A case study of rainwater harvesting: Its design, factors affecting and cost installation of AIIMS Hospital, Raipur. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
de Winnaar, G., G. P. W. Jewitt, and M. Horan. 2007. “A GIS-based approach for identifying potential runoff harvesting sites in the Thukela River basin, South Africa.” Phys. Chem. Earth 32 (15–18): 1058–1067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.009.
Dhakate, R., V. G. Rao, B. A. Raju, J. Mahesh, S. M. Rao, and S. Sankaran. 2013. “Integrated approach for identifying suitable sites for rainwater harvesting structures for groundwater augmentation in basaltic terrain.” Water Resour. Manage. 27 (Mar): 1279–1299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-012-0238-3.
Eastman, R., W. Jin, P. A. K. Kyem, and J. Toledano. 1995. “Raster decisions multi-criteria/multi-objective decisions.” Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 61 (5): 539–547.
Githui, F. W. 2008. “Assessing the impacts of environmental change on the hydrology of the Nzoia catchment, in the Lake Victoria Basin.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel.
Hameed, H. M. 2013. “Water harvesting in Erbil Governorate, Kurdistan region, Iraq detection of suitable sites using geographic information system and remote sensing.” Student thesis series INES, Dept. of Physical Geography and Ecosystems Science, Lund Univ.
Hopkins, L. D. 1977. “Methods for generating land suitability maps: A comparative evaluation.” J. Am. Plann. Assoc. 43 (4): 386–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944367708977903.
Ibrahim, G. R. F., H. Hashemi, P. A. Saied, H. M. Hameed, S. S. Qurtas, and H. J. Saleh. 2016. “Urban growth prediction using cellular automata Markov: A case study using Sulaimaniya city in the Kurdistan Region of North Iraq.” Res. Humanit. Social Sci. 6 (14): 108.
Ibrahim, G. R. F., A. Rasul, A. Ali Hamid, Z. F. Ali, and A. A. Dewana. 2019. “Suitable site selection for rainwater harvesting and storage case study using Dohuk Governorate.” Water 11 (4): 864. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11040864.
Islam, M. R. 2019. “Rainfall in Bangladesh: Is rainwater harvesting a sustainable approach for governing rainwater?” Eur. J. Sustainable Dev. 8 (5): 433. https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd.2019.v8n5p433.
Islam, M. R., M. R. Ahmad, M. N. Alam, M. S. Marma, and A. Gafur. 2020. “Micro-watershed delineation and potential site selection for runoff water harvesting using remote sensing and GIS in a Hilly Area of Bangladesh.” Am. J. Water Resour. 8 (3): 134–144. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajwr-8-3-4.
Kadam, A. K., S. S. Kale, N. N. Pande, N. J. Pawar, and R. N. Sankhua. 2012. “Identifying potential rainwater harvesting sites of a semi-arid, basaltic region of Western India, using SCS-CN method.” Water Resour. Manage. 26 (Feb): 2537–2554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-012-0031-3.
Kahinda, J. M., E. S. B. Lillie, A. E. Taigbenu, M. Taute, and R. J. Boroto. 2008. “Developing suitability maps for rainwater harvesting in South Africa.” Phys. Chem. Earth 33 (8–13): 788–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2008.06.047.
Kowalik, T., and A. Walega. 2015. “Estimation of CN parameter for small agricultural watersheds using asymptotic functions.” Water 7 (12): 939–955. https://doi.org/10.3390/w7030939.
Kumar, T., and D. C. Jhariya. 2016. “Identification of rainwater harvesting sites using SCS-CN methodology, remote sensing and geographical information system techniques.” Geocarto Int. 32 (12): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2015.1132483.
Kumar, T., and D. C. Jhariya. 2017. “Identification of rainwater harvesting sites using SCS-CN methodology, remote sensing and Geographical Information System techniques.” Geocarto Int. 32 (12): 1367–1388. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2016.1213772.
Li, F., S. Cook, G. T. Geballe, and W. R. Burch Jr. 2000. “Rainwater harvesting agriculture: An integrated system for water management on rainfed land in China’s semiarid areas.” AMBIO 29 (8): 477–483. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-29.8.477.
Liang, X., and M. P. van Dijk. 2011. “Economic and financial analysis on rainwater harvesting for agricultural irrigation in the rural areas of Beijing.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 55 (11): 1100–1108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.06.009.
Mahmoud, S. H., and A. A. Alazba. 2015. “Hydrological response to land cover changes and human activities in arid regions using a geographic information system and remote sensing.” PLoS One 10 (4): e0125805. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0125805.
Melesse, A. M., and S. F. Shih. 2003. “Spatially distributed storm runoff depth estimation using Landsat images and GIS.” Comput. Electron. Agric. 37 (1–3): 173–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1699(02)00111-4.
Mulliner, E., N. Malys, and V. Maliene. 2016. “Comparative analysis of MCDM methods for the assessment of sustainable housing affordability.” Omega 59 (Mar): 146–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omega.2015.05.013.
Napoli, M., S. Cecchi, S. Orlandini, and C. A. Zanchi. 2014. “Determining potential rainwater harvesting sites using a continuous runoff potential accounting procedure and GIS techniques in central Italy.” Agric. Water Manage. 141 (Apr): 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.04.012.
Naseef, T. A. U., and R. Thomas. 2016. “Identification of suitable sites for water harvesting structures in Kecheri River basin.” Procedia Technol. 24 (Jan): 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2016.05.003.
Othman, A. A., A. F. Al-Maamar, D. A. M. A. Al-Manmi, V. Liesenberg, S. E. Hasan, A. K. Obaid, and A. M. F. Al-Quraishi. 2020. “GIS-based modeling for selection of dam sites in the Kurdistan Region, Iraq.” ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 9 (4): 244. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9040244.
Ouessar, M., D. Gabriels, A. Tsunekawa, and S. Evett. 2017. Water and land security in drylands. New York: Springer.
Payraudeau, S., M. G. Tournoud, and F. Cernesson. 2003. “Sensitivity of effective rainfall amount to land use description using GIS tool: Case of a small Mediterranean catchment.” Phys. Chem. Earth 28 (6–7): 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-7065(03)00035-4.
Pourghasemi, H. R., S. Yousefi, N. Sadhasivam, and S. Eskandari. 2020. “Assessing, mapping, and optimizing the locations of sediment control check dams construction.” Sci. Total Environ. 739 (Jun): 139954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139954.
Prasad, H. C., P. Bhalla, and S. Palria. 2014. “Site suitability analysis of water harvesting structures using remote sensing and GIS—A case study of Pisangan watershed, Ajmer district, Rajasthan.” ISPRS Archiv. 40 (8): 1471–1482. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-8-1471-2014.
Qi, Q., J. Marwa, T. B. Mwamila, W. Gwenzi, and C. Noubactep. 2019. “Making rainwater harvesting a key solution for water management: The universality of the Kilimanjaro concept.” Sustainability 11 (20): 5606. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205606.
Rahi, K. A., and Z. N. Abudi. 2005. “Rainwater harvesting techniques applied to some Iraqi zones.” J. Eng. Sustainable Dev. 9 (2): 82–90.
Rahi, K. A., A.-S. T. Al-Madhhachi, and S. N. Al-Hussaini. 2019. “Assessment of surface water resources of eastern Iraq.” Hydrology 6 (3): 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology6030057.
Rahman, S., M. T. R. Khan, S. Akib, N. B. C. Din, S. K. Biswas, and S. M. Shirazi. 2014. “Sustainability of rainwater harvesting system in terms of water quality.” Sci. World J. 2014 (Feb): 721357. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/721357.
Ramakrishnan, D., A. Bandyopadhyay, and K. N. Kusuma. 2009. “SCS-CN and GIS-based approach for identifying potential water harvesting sites in the Kali Watershed, Mahi River Basin, India.” J. Earth Syst. Sci. 118 (Mar): 355–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-009-0034-5.
Saaty, T. L., and L. G. Vargas. 1980. “Hierarchical analysis of behavior in competition: Prediction in chess.” Behav. Sci. 25 (3): 180–191. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830250303.
Satheeshkumar, S., S. Venkateswaran, and R. Kannan. 2017. “Rainfall–runoff estimation using SCS-CN and GIS approach in the Pappiredipatti watershed of the Vaniyar sub basin, South India.” Model. Earth Syst. Environ. 3 (1): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-017-0301-4.
Savary, S., A. N. Rousseau, and R. Quilbé. 2009. “Assessing the effects of historical land cover changes on runoff and low flows using remote sensing and hydrological modeling.” J. Hydrol. Eng. 14 (6): 575–587. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000024.
Sayl, K. N., N. S. Muhammad, and A. El-Shafie. 2019. “Identification of potential sites for runoff water harvesting.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Water Manage. 172 (3): 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1680/jwama.16.00109.
Van Dijk, A. I. J. 2010. “Selection of an appropriately simple storm runoff model.” Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 14 (3): 447–458. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-447-2010.
Viji, R., P. R. Prasanna, and R. Ilangovan. 2015. “Modified SCS-CN and Green-Ampt methods in surface runoff modelling for the Kundahpallam watershed, Nilgiris, Western Ghats, India.” Aquat. Procedia 4 (Jan): 677–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.087.
Zakaria, S., Y. Mustafa, D. Mohammed, S. Ali, N. Al-Ansari, and S. Knutsson. 2013. “Estimation of annual harvested runoff at Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Kurdistan region of Iraq.” J. Nat. Sci. 5 (12): 1272–1283. https://doi.org/10.4236/ns.2013.512155.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
Volume 150 • Issue 2 • February 2024
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jan 21, 2023
Accepted: Sep 21, 2023
Published online: Nov 24, 2023
Published in print: Feb 1, 2024
Discussion open until: Apr 24, 2024
ASCE Technical Topics:
- Business management
- Case studies
- Climates
- Dams
- Developing countries
- Droughts
- Engineering fundamentals
- Environmental engineering
- Geotechnical engineering
- Infrastructure
- Land use
- Meteorology
- Methodology (by type)
- Practice and Profession
- Precipitation
- Rain water
- Rainfall
- Research methods (by type)
- Urban and regional development
- Urban areas
- Water (by type)
- Water and water resources
- Water management
- Water shortage
- Water supply
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.