Users’ Transport Mode Choices in the Autonomous Vehicle Age in Urban Areas
Publication: Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part A: Systems
Volume 150, Issue 1
Abstract
Travelers choose transport modes on the basis of their preferences in which the features onboard vehicles affect the choice of transport modes. In economic theory, it is found that travelers seek to maximize their travel utilities. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) are to be on the market when machines will replace human drivers. AVs are to be used for different purposes, such as transporting passengers and goods. In literature, some research studied AVs in combination with other transport modes, whereas fewer studies have considered the impact of a camera onboard carsharing and privately shared autonomous vehicles (PSAVs) on traveler choices. This research was developed to predict the impact of traveler preferences on the availability of PSAV and carsharing considering certain variables, such as travel time, travel cost, waiting/walking time, and the availability of camera onboard (i.e., as an indication of comfort and privacy factors). A stated preference (SP) survey was designed in which sociodemographic and travel variables were included. A discrete choice experiment (DCE) was designed and included in the SP survey. The SP survey was distributed in Budapest, Hungary, where 313 respondents were collected. The discrete choice modeling approach is used, in which the multinomial logit (MNL) model was applied in developing a transport mode choice model. The developed model estimated the impact of different variables on transport modes as well as the willingness of travelers to use carsharing and PSAVs. The model explained the effects of trip length, income, gender, education, occupation, frequent current transport mode, and trip purpose on travelers’ selection of transport mode. In conclusion, it demonstrated that people tend to use carsharing more than PSAVs, and the availability of cameras onboard decreases the probability of using a transport mode.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to Malek Al-Khatatneh for his support in distributing the surveys.
References
Adams, J., B. Bateman, F. Becker, T. Cresswell, D. Flynn, R. McNaughton, Y. Oluboyede, S. Robalino, L. Ternent, and B. G. Sood. 2015. “Effectiveness and acceptability of parental financial incentives and quasi-mandatory schemes for increasing uptake of vaccinations in preschool children: Systematic review, qualitative study and discrete choice experiment.” Health Technol. Assess. 19 (94): 1–176. https://doi.org/10.3310/hta19940.
Ajzen, I. 1991. “The theory of planned behavior.” Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 50 (2): 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T.
Aloulou, F. 2018. “The application of discrete choice models in transport.” In Statistics-growing data sets and growing demand for statistics. London: IntechOpen.
Anderson, J. M., N. Kalra, K. D. Stanley, P. Sorensen, C. Samaras, and T. A. Oluwatola. 2014. Autonomous vehicle technology: How to best realize its social benefits. Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation.
Bansal, P., K. M. Kockelman, and A. Singh. 2016. “Assessing public opinions of and interest in new vehicle technologies: An Austin perspective.” Transp. Res. Part C Emerging Technol. 67 (Jun): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2016.01.019.
Baptista, P., S. Melo, and C. Rolim. 2015. “Car sharing systems as a sustainable transport policy: A case study from Lisbon, Portugal.” In Sustainable urban transport. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing.
Ben-Akiva, M. E., E. Moshe, and S. R. Lerman. 1985. Discrete choice analysis: Theory and application to travel demand. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Berliner, R. M., A. Malokin, G. Circella, and P. L. Mokhtarian. 2015. “Travel-based multitasking: Modeling the propensity to conduct activities while commuting.” In Proc., Transportation Research Board 94th Annual Meeting. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Butler, L., T. Yigitcanlar, and A. Paz. 2020. “Smart urban mobility innovations: A comprehensive review and evaluation.” IEEE Access 8 (Oct): 196034–196049. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3034596.
Cascetta, E. 2009. “Random utility theory.” In Transportation systems analysis. New York: Springer.
Chuttur, M. Y. 2009. Overview of the technology acceptance model: Origins, developments and future directions. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ.
Ciari, F., M. Balac, and M. Balmer. 2015. “Modelling the effect of different pricing schemes on free-floating carsharing travel demand: A test case for Zurich, Switzerland.” Transportation 42 (May): 413–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-015-9608-z.
Cyganski, R., E. Fraedrich, and B. Lenz. 2015. “Travel-time valuation for automated driving: A use-case-driven study.” In Proc., 94th Annual Meeting of the TRB. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Das, S., A. Sekar, R. Chen, H. C. Kim, T. J. Wallington, and E. Williams. 2017. “Impacts of autonomous vehicles on consumers time-use patterns.” Challenges 8 (2): 32. https://doi.org/10.3390/challe8020032.
De Bekker-Grob, E. W., B. Donkers, M. F. Jonker, and E. A. Stolk. 2015. “Sample size requirements for discrete-choice experiments in healthcare: A practical guide.” Patient-Patient-Centered Outcomes Res. 8 (Oct): 373–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40271-015-0118-z.
Dia, H., and F. Javanshour. 2017. “Autonomous shared mobility-on-demand: Melbourne pilot simulation study.” Transp. Res. Procedia 22 (Jan): 285–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2017.03.035.
Efthymiou, D., E. Chaniotakis, and C. Antoniou. 2020. “Factors affecting the adoption of vehicle sharing systems.” In Demand for emerging transportation systems. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
Fagnant, D. J., and K. M. Kockelman. 2014. “The travel and environmental implications of shared autonomous vehicles, using agent-based model scenarios.” Transp. Res. Part C Emerging Technol. 40 (Mar): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2013.12.001.
Fornahl, D., and M. Hülsmann. 2016. Markets and policy measures in the evolution of electric mobility. Cham, Germany: Springer.
Ghosh, S., B. Maitra, and S. S. Das. 2013. “Effect of distributional assumption of random parameters of mixed logit model on willingness-to-pay values.” Procedia Social Behav. Sci. 104 (Dec): 601–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.11.154.
Golbabaei, F., T. Yigitcanlar, and J. Bunker. 2020. “The role of shared autonomous vehicle systems in delivering smart urban mobility: A systematic review of the literature.” Int. J. Sustainable Transp. 15 (10): 731–748. https://doi.org/10.1080/15568318.2020.1798571.
Greenblatt, J. B., and S. Shaheen. 2015. “Automated vehicles, on-demand mobility, and environmental impacts.” Curr. Sustainable/Renewable Energy Rep. 2 (Sep): 74–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40518-015-0038-5.
Gurumurthy, K. M., and K. M. Kockelman. 2020. “Modeling Americans’ autonomous vehicle preferences: A focus on dynamic ride-sharing, privacy & long-distance mode choices.” Technol. Forecasting Social Change 150 (Jan): 119792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119792.
Haboucha, C. J., R. Ishaq, and Y. Shiftan. 2017. “User preferences regarding autonomous vehicles.” Transp. Res. Part C Emerging Technol. 78 (May): 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2017.01.010.
Hamadneh, J., and D. Esztergár-Kiss. 2021a. “The effects of multitasking and tools carried by travelers onboard on the perceived trip time.” J. Adv. Transp. 2021 (Jul): 1. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5597694.
Hamadneh, J., and D. Esztergár-Kiss. 2021b. “Modeling of onboard activities: Public transport and shared autonomous vehicle.” In Proc., Int. Conf. on Human-Computer Interaction, 39–55. Cham, Germany: Springer.
Hamadneh, J., and D. Esztergár-Kiss. 2021c. “Travel behavior of car travelers with the presence of park-and-ride facilities and autonomous vehicles.” Period. Polytech. Transp. Eng. 50 (1): 101–110. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPtr.18020.
Hamadneh, J., and D. Esztergár-Kiss. 2022a. “The preference of onboard activities in a new age of automated driving.” Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. 14 (1): 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12544-022-00540-7.
Hamadneh, J., and D. Esztergár-Kiss. 2022b. “Stakeholder viewpoint analysis in the autonomous vehicle industry using multicriteria analysis.” Transp. Policy 126 (Sep): 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2022.07.005.
Hamadneh, J., and D. Esztergár-Kiss. 2023. “The preferences of transport mode of certain travelers in the age of autonomous vehicle.” J. Urban Mobility 3 (Dec): 100054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urbmob.2023.100054.
Hamadneh, J., D. Szabolcs, and D. Esztergár-Kiss. 2022. “Stakeholder viewpoints analysis of the autonomous vehicle industry by using multi-actors multi-criteria analysis.” Transp. Policy 126 (Sep): 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2022.07.005.
Hao, M., and T. Yamamoto. 2018. “Shared autonomous vehicles: A review considering car sharing and autonomous vehicles.” Asian Transport Stud. 5 (1): 47–63. https://doi.org/10.11175/eastsats.5.47.
Hauber, A. B., J. M. González, C. G. Groothuis-Oudshoorn, T. Prior, D. A. Marshall, C. Cunningham, M. J. Ijzerman, and J. F. Bridges. 2016. “Statistical methods for the analysis of discrete choice experiments: A report of the ISPOR conjoint analysis good research practices task force.” Value Health 19 (4): 300–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2016.04.004.
Howard, D., and D. Dai. 2014. “Public perceptions of self-driving cars: The case of Berkeley, California.” In Proc., Transportation Research Board 93rd Annual Meeting, 1–16. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Jouyani, Y., M. Hadiyan, M. Salehi, and A. Souri. 2019. “Using discrete choice model to elicit preference for health-care priority setting.” J. Educ. Health Promot. 8 (Jun): 117. https://doi.org/10.4103%2Fjehp.jehp_404_18.
Kang, D., F. Hu, and M. Levin. 2022. “Impact of automated vehicles on traffic assignment, mode split, and parking behavior.” Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 104 (Mar): 103200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2022.103200.
Kang, D., and M. W. Levin. 2021. “Maximum-stability dispatch policy for shared autonomous vehicles.” Transp. Res. Part B Methodol. 148 (Jun): 132–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trb.2021.04.011.
Khaloei, M., A. Ranjbari, and D. Mackenzie. 2019. “Analyzing the shift in travel modes’ market shares with the deployment of autonomous vehicle technology.” In Proc., 99th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Kolarova, V., F. Steck, and F. J. Bahamonde-Birke. 2019. “Assessing the effect of autonomous driving on value of travel time savings: A comparison between current and future preferences.” Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 129 (Nov): 155–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2019.08.011.
Kopelias, P., E. Demiridi, K. Vogiatzis, A. Skabardonis, and V. Zafiropoulou. 2020. “Connected & autonomous vehicles—Environmental impacts—A review.” Sci. Total Environ. 712 (Apr): 135237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135237.
Krueger, R., T. H. Rashidi, and J. M. Rose. 2016. “Preferences for shared autonomous vehicles.” Transp. Res. Part C Emerging Technol. 69 (Aug): 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2016.06.015.
Lai, J., J. Hu, L. Cui, Z. Chen, and X. Yang. 2020. “A generic simulation platform for cooperative adaptive cruise control under partially connected and automated environment.” Transp. Res. Part C Emerging Technol. 121 (Dec): 102874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2020.102874.
Lancsar, E., and J. Louviere. 2008. “Conducting discrete choice experiments to inform healthcare decision making.” Pharmacoeconomics 26 (Aug): 661–677. https://doi.org/10.2165/00019053-200826080-00004.
Lempert, R., J. Zhao, and H. Dowlatabadi. 2019. “Convenience, savings, or lifestyle? Distinct motivations and travel patterns of one-way and two-way carsharing members in Vancouver, Canada.” Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 71 (Jun): 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2018.12.010.
Litman, T. 2020. “Autonomous vehicle implementation predictions: Implications for transport planning.” Transp. Res. Board. 1–49.
Madhuwanthi, R., A. Marasinghe, R. P. C. Janaka Rajapakse, A. D. Dharmawansa, and S. Nomura. 2015. “Factors influencing to travel behavior on transport mode choice.” Int. J. Affective Eng. 15 (2): 63–72. https://doi.org/10.5057/ijae.IJAE-D-15-00044.
Mahdi, A., J. Hamadneh, and D. Esztergár-Kiss. 2022. “Modeling of travel behavior in Budapest: Leisure travelers.” In Proc., 24th EURO Working Group on Transportation Meeting. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
Mallozzi, P., P. Pelliccione, A. Knauss, C. Berger, and N. Mohammadiha. 2019. “Autonomous vehicles: State of the art, future trends, and challenges.” In Automotive systems and software engineering. Cham, Germany: Springer.
Mangham, L. J., K. Hanson, and B. McPake. 2009. “How to do (or not to do)… Designing a discrete choice experiment for application in a low-income country.” Health Policy Plann. 24 (2): 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czn047.
Megens, I. I., W. W. Schaefer, P. P. Van Der Waerden, and P. P. Masselink. 2015. Vehicle users’ preferences concerning automated driving implications for transportation and market planning. Eindhoven, Netherlands: Eindhoven Univ. of Technology.
Milakis, D., B. Van Arem, and B. Van Wee. 2017. “Policy and society related implications of automated driving: A review of literature and directions for future research.” J. Intell. Transp. Syst. Technol. Plann. Oper. 21 (4): 324–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/15472450.2017.1291351.
Müller, J. M. 2019. “Comparing technology acceptance for autonomous vehicles, battery electric vehicles, and car sharing—A study across Europe, China, and North America.” Sustainability 11 (16): 4333. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11164333.
Narayanan, S., E. Chaniotakis, and C. Antoniou. 2020. “Shared autonomous vehicle services: A comprehensive review.” Transp. Res. Part C Emerging Technol. 111 (Feb): 255–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2019.12.008.
Nourinejad, M., S. Bahrami, and M. J. Roorda. 2018. “Designing parking facilities for autonomous vehicles.” Transp. Res. Part B Methodol. 109 (Mar): 110–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trb.2017.12.017.
Payre, W., J. Cestac, and P. Delhomme. 2014. “Intention to use a fully automated car: Attitudes and a priori acceptability.” Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 27 (Nov): 252–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2014.04.009.
Perboli, G., B. Caroleo, and S. Musso. 2017. “Car-sharing: Current and potential members behavior analysis after the introduction of the service.” In Proc., 2017 IEEE 41st Annual Computer Software and Applications Conf. (COMPSAC), 771–776. New York: IEEE.
Schaefers, T. 2013. “Exploring carsharing usage motives: A hierarchical means-end chain analysis.” Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 47 (Jan): 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2012.10.024.
Schmitz, C. 2012. LimeSurvey: An open source survey tool. Hamburg, Germany: LimeSurvey Project Hamburg.
Schoettle, B., and M. Sivak. 2014. “A survey of public opinion about connected vehicles in the US, the UK, and Australia.” In Proc., 2014 Int. Conf. on Connected Vehicles and Expo (ICCVE), 687–692. New York: IEEE.
Shaheen, S., and M. A. Bouzaghrane. 2019. “Mobility and energy impacts of shared automated vehicles: A review of recent literature.” Curr. Sustainable/Renewable Energy Rep. 6 (Dec): 193–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40518-019-00135-2.
Shaheen, S. A., A. Schwartz, and K. Wipyewski. 2004. “Policy considerations for carsharing and station cars: Monitoring growth, trends, and overall impacts.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1887 (1): 128–136. https://doi.org/10.3141/1887-15.
Singleton, P. A. 2019. “Discussing the ‘positive utilities’ of autonomous vehicles: Will travellers really use their time productively?” Transp. Rev. 39 (1): 50–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2018.1470584.
Sipetas, C., C. Roncoli, and M. Mladenović. 2023. “Mixed fleets of automated and human-driven vehicles in public transport systems: An evaluation of feeder line services.” Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect. 18 (Mar): 100791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2023.100791.
Stata Corporation. 2019. Stata base reference manual: Release 16. College Station, TX: Stata Corporation.
Team, R. 2015. RStudio: Integrated development for R. Boston: RStudio.
Turoń, K., and A. Kubik. 2020. “Economic aspects of driving various types of vehicles in intelligent urban transport systems, including car-sharing services and autonomous vehicles.” Appl. Sci. 10 (16): 5580. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165580.
Yan, X., J. Levine, and X. Zhao. 2019. “Integrating ridesourcing services with public transit: An evaluation of traveler responses combining revealed and stated preference data.” Transp. Res. Part C Emerging Technol. 105 (Aug): 683–696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2018.07.029.
Zhang, W., and S. Guhathakurta. 2017. “Parking spaces in the age of shared autonomous vehicles: How much parking will we need and where?” Transp. Res. Rec. 2651 (1): 80–91. https://doi.org/10.3141/2651-09.
Zhang, X., W. Liu, and S. T. Waller. 2019. “A network traffic assignment model for autonomous vehicles with parking choices.” Comput.-Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng. 34 (12): 1100–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/mice.12486.
Zhang, Y., Z. Wu, Y. Zhang, Z. Shang, P. Wang, Q. Zou, X. Zhang, and J. Hu. 2022. “Human-lead-platooning cooperative adaptive cruise control.” IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 23 (10): 18253–18272. https://doi.org/10.1109/TITS.2022.3156379.
Zhou, F., Z. Zheng, J. Whitehead, S. Washington, R. K. Perrons, and L. Page. 2020. “Preference heterogeneity in mode choice for car-sharing and shared automated vehicles.” Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 132 (Feb): 633–650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2019.12.004.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part A: Systems
Volume 150 • Issue 1 • January 2024
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Feb 23, 2023
Accepted: Aug 28, 2023
Published online: Nov 3, 2023
Published in print: Jan 1, 2024
Discussion open until: Apr 3, 2024
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.