Numerical Simulation of Convection–Diffusion Coupling Transport of Water and Chloride in Coated Concrete
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 36, Issue 12
Abstract
Chloride transport is one of the most serious problems facing reinforced concrete structures, and coatings can effectively block the intrusion of chloride ions. In order to evaluate the resistance of coatings to chloride ion erosion more quickly and accurately, based on the transport mechanism of chloride and water in coated concrete, a two-dimensional mesoscale model of concrete containing coating, aggregate, and matrix was established in this paper. In response to the transport mechanism of chloride ions in coated concrete, a coupled convection–diffusion numerical model considering the binding effect of chloride, temperature effect, and hydration effect is established. The idealized service life conditions of the coating are introduced, and the influence of coating type, coating thickness, and coating service life on the distribution of erosive agents inside the coated concrete is analyzed. After analysis and research, it is recommended that coating concrete exposed to 3.5% NaCl erosion use a film-forming coating with an expected life of more than 10 years and a coating thickness of at least 1.5 mm, preferably chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) and chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) coatings.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
The data are available from the first author or corresponding author upon request.
Acknowledgments
The authors greatly acknowledge the National Key R&D Program of China (2021YFF0500803), the National Outstanding Youth Science Fund Project of National Natural Science Foundation of China (51925903), the National Natural Science Foundation of China Joint Fund for regional innovation and development (U21A20150), the Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of Jiangsu Province (BK20220071), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (RF1028623199), and the State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials (2020CEM001).
References
Ababneh, A., F. Benboudjema, and Y. Xi. 2003. “Chloride penetration in nonsaturated concrete.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 15 (2): 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2003)15:2(183).
Almusallam, A. A., F. M. Khan, S. U. Dulaijan, and O. S. B. Al-Amoudi. 2003. “Effectiveness of surface coatings in improving concrete durability.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 25 (4): 473–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(02)00087-2.
Bažant, Z. P., and L. J. Najjar. 1972. “Nonlinear water diffusion in nonsaturated concrete.” Matér. Constr. 5 (1): 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02479073.
Chen, X. D., A. P. Yu, G. Y. Liu, P. Chen, and Q. Q. Liang. 2020. “A multi-phase mesoscopic simulation model for the diffusion of chloride in concrete under freeze-thaw cycles.” Constr. Build. Mater. 265 (Dec): 120223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120223.
Dong, H., and G. Ye. 2019. “Numerical study on chloride ingress in cement-based coating systems and service life assessment.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 31 (5): 04019054. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002686.
Ecchuya, K., K. Imamoto, and C. Kiyohara. 2018. “Study on prediction of deterioration of multi-layer finish coating and evaluation of reference service life in terms of carbonation control effect.” J. Struct. Constr. Eng. 83 (754): 1735–1743. https://doi.org/10.3130/aijs.83.1735.
Etchuya, K., K. Imamoto, and C. Kiyohara. 2020. “Deterioration prediction model of multi-layer coating material and its reference service life evaluation in terms of carbonation control effect.” In Proc., XV Int. Conf. on Durability of Building Materials and Components (DBMC 2020). Barcelona, Spain: SCIPEDIA.
Feng, T. 2017. “Durability assessment and service life design of Dalian Bay immersed tunnel.” [In Chinese.] Master’s thesis, College of Civil Aviation, Nanjing Univ. of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
Gandage, A. 2023. “Admixtures in concrete—A review.” In Proc., Int. Conf. on Construction Real Estate Infrastructure and Projects 2018. Pune, India: National Institute of Construction Management and Research.
Grondin, F., and M. Matallah. 2014. “How to consider the interfacial transition zones in the finite element modelling of concrete?” Cem. Concr. Res. 58 (Jun): 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2014.01.009.
Guimarães, A. T. C., M. A. Climent, G. D. Vera, F. J. Vicente, F. T. Rodrigues, and C. Andrade. 2011. “Determination of chloride diffusivity through partially saturated Portland cement concrete by a simplified procedure.” Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2): 785–790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.07.005.
Hall, C., and W. D. Hoff. 2002. Water transport in brick, stone and concrete, 336. London: CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203301708.
Hameed, A., A. M. Rasool, Y. Ibrahim, M. F. Afzal, A. Qazi, and I. Hameed. 2022. “Utilization of fly ash as a viscosity-modifying agent to produce cost-effective, self-compacting concrete: A sustainable solution.” Sustainability 14 (18): 11559. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811559.
Homan, L., A. N. Ababneh, and Y. Xi. 2016. “The effect of moisture transport on chloride penetration in concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 125 (Jun): 1189–1195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.08.124.
Ibrahim, M., A. S. Al-Gahtani, M. Maslehuddin, and A. A. Almusallam. 1997. “Effectiveness of concrete surface treatmentmaterials in reducing chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion.” Constr. Build. Mater. 11 (7): 443–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0950-0618(97)00023-8.
Janssen, H., B. Blocken, and J. Carmeliet. 2007. “Conservative modelling of the moisture and heat transfer in building components under atmospheric excitation.” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 50 (5): 1128–1140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2006.06.048.
Jiang, J., F. Wang, W. Guo, and W. Xu. 2021. “Hydraulic transport properties of unsaturated cementitious composites with spheroidal aggregates.” Int. J. Mech. Sci. 212 (Sep): 15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2021.106845.
Jiang, J., F. Wang, L. Wang, J. Zhang, and L. Wang. 2023. “Experimental investigation on effects of polyaniline-modified-lignin on cement-based materials: Strength, hydration and dispersion.” Constr. Build. Mater. 394 (Aug): 131853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131853.
Jin, W., and Y. Zhao. 2014. Durability of concrete structure. Beijing: Science Press.
Jin, Z., W. Sun, T. Zhao, and Q. Li. 2009. “Chloride binding in concrete exposed to corrosive solutions.” [In Chinese.] J. Chin. Ceram. Soc. 37 (7): 1068–1072. https://doi.org/10.1109/CLEOE-EQEC.2009.5194697.
Kuhl, D., F. Bangert, and G. Meschke. 2004. “Coupled chemo-mechanical deterioration of cementitious materials Part I: Modeling and Part II: Numerical methods and simulations.” Int. J. Solids Struct. 41 (1): 41–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2003.08.004.
Li, C., K. Li, and Z. Chen. 2008. “Numerical analysis of moisture influential depth in concrete and its application in durability design.” Tsinghua Sci. Technol. 13 (S1): 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1007-0214(08)70119-6.
Li, G., B. Yang, C. Guo, J. Du, and X. Wu. 2015. “Time dependence and service life prediction of chloride resistance of concrete coatings.” Constr. Build. Mater. 83 (Jan): 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.03.003.
Li, G. Q., Y. Zhao, and S. S. Pang. 1999. “Four-phase sphere modeling of effective bulk modulus of concrete.” Cem. Concr. Res. 29 (6): 839–845. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00040-X.
Li, K., C. Li, and Z. Chen. 2009. “Influential depth of moisture transport in concrete subject to drying–wetting cycles.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 31 (10): 693–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.08.006.
Liu, Z. 2021. “Study on durability of anticorrosive coating for concrete guardrail of expressway bridge in cold region.” Master’s thesis, School of Traffic and Transportation, Shijiazhaung Tiedao Univ.
Liu, Z., Y. Wang, J. Wang, C. Liu, Y. Zhang, and J. Jiang. 2021. “Experiment and simulation of chloride ion transport and binding in concrete under the coupling of diffusion and convection.” J. Build. Eng. 45 (Jan): 103610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103610.
Liu, Z., Y. Wang, M. Wu, X. Xia, Y. Zhang, and J. Jiang. 2023. “In situ visualization of water transport in cement mortar with an ultra-low w/b ratio under the coupling conditions of osmotic pressure, confining pressure, and temperature.” Mater. Struct. 56 (4): 68. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-023-02145-5.
Malagavelli, V., and P. N. Rao. 2010. “High performance concrete with GGBS and ROBO sand.” Int. J. Eng. Sci. Technol. 2 (10): 5107–5113.
Mangat, P. S., and B. T. Molloy. 1994. “Prediction of long term chloride concentration in concrete.” Mater. Struct. 27 (6): 338. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02473426.
Mansor, A. M., R. P. Borg, A. M. Hamed, M. M. Gadeem, and M. M. Saeed. 2018. “The effects of water-cement ratio and chemical admixtures on the workability of concrete.” IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 442 (1): 012017. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/442/1/012017.
Mehta, P. K. 1991. “Durability of concrete-fifty years of progress.” Spec. Publ. 126 (Feb): 1–32. https://doi.org/10.14359/1998.
Miao, Y., Z. Lu, F. Wang, H. Wang, Y. Li, J. Lin, and J. Jiang. 2023. “Shrinkage cracking evolvement in concrete cured under low relative humidity and its relationship with mechanical development.” J. Build. Eng. 72 (Aug): 106670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106670.
Ming, X., Q. Liu, M. Wang, Y. Cai, B. Chen, and Z. Li. 2023. “Improved chloride binding capacity and corrosion protection of cement-based materials by incorporating alumina nano particles.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 136 (Mar): 104898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104898.
Nayak, S., G. A. Lyngdoh, and S. Das. 2019. “Influence of microencapsulated phase change materials (PCMs) on the chloride ion diffusivity of concretes exposed to freeze-thaw cycles: Insights from multiscale numerical simulations.” Constr. Build. Mater. 212 (Jun): 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.003.
Pan, X., Z. Shi, C. Shi, T.-C. Ling, and N. Li. 2017. “A review on surface treatment for concrete–Part 2: Performance.” Constr. Build. Mater. 133 (Sep): 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.11.128.
Plank, J., E. Sakai, C. W. Miao, C. Yu, and J. X. Hong. 2015. “Chemical admixtures—Chemistry, applications and their impact on concrete microstructure and durability.” Cem. Concr. Res. 78 (Dec): 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.05.016.
Qian, R., C. Fu, Y. Zhang, G. Sun, R. Jin, Y. Zhang, and D. Kong. 2024. “Investigations on water vapor adsorption–desorption of cementitious materials and its induced permeability under isothermal steady-state flow.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 36 (1): 04023527. https://doi.org/10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-16442.
Qian, R., Y. Zhang, Y. Zhang, C. Fu, C. Liu, L. Yang, and G. Liu. 2023. “Various gas transport properties in concrete considering transporting mechanisms and testing methods-A review.” Constr. Build. Mater. 389 (Jul): 131636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131636.
Rocco, C. G., and M. Elices. 2009. “Effect of aggregate shape on the mechanical properties of a simple concrete.” Eng. Fract. Mech. 76 (2): 286–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2008.10.010.
Saidani, M., D. Saraireh, and M. Gerges. 2016. “Behaviour of different types of fibre reinforced concrete without admixture.” Eng. Struct. 113 (Apr): 328–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.01.041.
Selih, J., A. C. M. Sousa, and T. W. Bremner. 1996. “Moisture transport in initially fully saturated concrete during drying.” Transp. Porous Media 24 (1): 81–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00175604.
Shazali, M. A., A. H. Al-Gadhib, and M. H. Baluch. 2012. “Transport modeling of chlorides with binding in concrete.” Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 37 (2): 469–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-012-0182-9.
Song, Z., C. Huanchun, Q. Liu, X. Liu, Q. Pu, Y. Zang, and N. Xu. 2020. “Numerical simulation of adsorption of organic inhibitors on C-S-H gel.” Crystals 10 (9): 742. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst10090742.
Souza, M. T., I. M. Ferreira, E. Guzi de Moraes, L. Senff, and A. P. Novaes de Oliveira. 2020. “3D printed concrete for large-scale buildings: An overview of rheology, printing parameters, chemical admixtures, reinforcements, and economic and environmental prospects.” J. Build. Eng. 32 (Jun): 101833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101833.
Sui, S., J. Zhang, L. Wang, W. Su, Z. Chen, G. Sheng, P. Li, and J. Jiang. 2022. “Facile and green fabrication of mussel-inspired polydopamine-based hydrophobic coating for concrete protection.” MRS Commun. 12 (5): 794–800. https://doi.org/10.1557/s43579-022-00235-z.
Thomas, J. J., R. J. Allen, and H. M. Jennings. 2009. “Hydration kinetics and microstructure development of normal and CaCl2-accelerated tricalcium silicate pastes.” J. Phys. Chem. C 113 (46): 19836–19844. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp907078u.
Thomas, M. D. A., and P. B. Bamforth. 1999. “Modelling chloride diffusion in concrete: Effect of fly ash and slag.” Cem. Concr. Res. 29 (4): 487–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00192-6.
Ulm, F. J., O. Coussy, K. Li, and C. Larive. 2000. “Thermo-chemo-mechanis of ASR expansion in concrete structures.” J. Eng. Mech. 126 (3): 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(2000)126:3(233).
Wang, L., J. Zhang, F. Wang, Z. Liu, W. Su, Z. Chen, and J. Jiang. 2023. “Investigation on the effects of polyaniline/lignin composites on the performance of waterborne polyurethane coating for protecting cement-based materials.” J. Build. Eng. 64 (Apr): 105665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105665.
Wang, Y., Y. Li, L. Lu, F. Wang, L. Wang, Z. Liu, and J. Jiang. 2024a. “Numerical prediction for life of damaged concrete under the action of fatigue loads.” Eng. Fail. Anal. 162 (Jan): 108368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2024.108368.
Wang, Y., Z. Liu, F. Wang, Y. Li, S. Gao, and J. Jiang. 2024b. “Non-destructive characterization of pore structure and chloride diffusion coefficient of cementitious materials with modified non-contact electrical resistivity method.” J. Build. Eng. 89 (Jul): 109173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109173.
Wang, Y., Y. Miao, Z. Liu, F. Wang, L. Wang, G. Sen, and J. Jiang. 2024c. “Convection-diffusion-electromigration coupled numerical simulation of water and chloride in cement-based materials.” Constr. Build. Mater. 426 (Mar): 136149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.136149.
Xiao, J., C. Lu, S. Jiang, and Y. Li. 2020. “Research and application of anticorrosive coating for reinforced concrete of coastal buildings.” J. Coastal Res. 103 (Mar): 417. https://doi.org/10.2112/SI103-085.1.
Yang, L. 2017. “Investigation of moisture and chloride ion transport in unsaturated concrete.” Ph.D. thesis, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Southeast Univ.
Yang, L., K. Kang, D. Gao, J. Li, Y. Wang, and C. Liu. 2022. “Effect of saturation degree on chloride transport in mortars under two conditions: Diffusion and continuous immersion.” Mater. Struct. 55 (7): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-022-02017-4.
Yin, T., R. Yu, K. Liu, Z. Wang, D. Fan, S. Wang, Y. Feng, and Z. Shui. 2022. “Precise mix-design of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) based on physicochemical packing method: From the perspective of cement hydration.” Constr. Build. Mater. 352 (Jan): 128944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128944.
Yoon, S. 2017. “Simulation of chloride ingress through surface-coated concrete during migration test using finite-difference and finite-element method.” Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2017 (Mar): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8703736.
Yu, H., W. Sun, J. Wang, L. Yan, W. Qu, and Z. Wei. 2003. “Circumstance of salt lakes and the durability of concrete or reinforced concrete.” [In Chinese.] Ind. Constr. 33 (3): 1–4. https://doi.org/10.13204/j.gyjz2003.03.001.
Yu, Y., and L. Lin. 2020. “Modeling and predicting chloride diffusion in recycled aggregate concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 264 (Dec): 120620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120620.
Zhang, Y. 2008. “Mechanics of chloride ions transportion in concrete.” Ph.D. thesis, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang Univ.
Zhou, X., Y. J. Xie, X. H. Zeng, G. C. Long, J. Q. Wu, G. Ma, F. Wang, H. Zhao, and L. Yao. 2022. “Meso-scale numerical simulation of the effect of aggregate strength on damage and fracture of high-strength concrete under dynamic tensile loading.” Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech. 122 (Dec): 103551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2022.103551.
Zuo, X. B., W. Sun, C. Yu, and X. R. Wan. 2010. “Modeling of ion diffusion coefficient in saturated concrete.” Comput. Concr. 7 (5): 421–435. https://doi.org/10.12989/cac.2010.7.5.421.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 36 • Issue 12 • December 2024
Copyright
© 2024 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Sep 24, 2023
Accepted: May 7, 2024
Published online: Sep 30, 2024
Published in print: Dec 1, 2024
Discussion open until: Feb 28, 2025
ASCE Technical Topics:
- Chemical compounds
- Chemicals
- Chemistry
- Chloride
- Coating
- Concrete
- Engineering fundamentals
- Engineering materials (by type)
- Environmental engineering
- Erosion
- Geology
- Geomechanics
- Geotechnical engineering
- Materials engineering
- Materials processing
- Models (by type)
- Numerical models
- Pollutants
- Reinforced concrete
- Salts
- Soil mechanics
- Water and water resources
- Water management
- Water supply
- Water supply systems
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.