Probabilistic Assessment of Groundwater Quality and Fluoride Exposure Risk for North-Eastern Rajasthan, India
Publication: Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste
Volume 27, Issue 4
Abstract
Fluoride risk has been highlighted for many regions in India, particularly the north-western parts that include Rajasthan amongst the most severely affected. Comprehensive probabilistic analysis incorporating all the sources of uncertainties is essential for proper assessment of the exposure risk. In this study, a Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) based methodology is formulated for probabilistic assessment of water quality and contaminant risk. This is demonstrated with groundwater quality data from semiarid regions of Rajasthan. Measurement uncertainty is addressed and nonparametric method is implemented for the risk analysis. A method to ascertain the required number of MCS simulations for such application is proposed. Results indicate that the deterministic estimate could undervalue the water quality parameters as well as the actual fluoride exposure risk. This could be a reason for the increasing number of affected people in the region despite the remediation measures (based on deterministic estimates) being implemented. Therefore, water quality and contaminant risk assessment should be preferably conducted in a probabilistic approach and periodically performed with updated data for monitoring temporal variations.
Practical Applications
This article elucidates a comprehensive methodology for probabilistic risk assessment, with a case study. The body weight and water consumption parameters for different categories of populations in India are summarized from recent literature for ready reference in case of future studies. The results from the simulation analysis conducted for Rajasthan, India show the following. The deterministic estimates of the water quality parameters remain within the 95% confidence bounds of the probabilistic estimate. However, in probabilistic estimates, the central tendency (median) and the upper limits are higher than the deterministic estimates in general. Similar observations could be made about the fluoride exposure, with the upper limiting value in probabilistic analysis being up to 30% higher than the deterministic estimate (deformities in knee and hip bones). Higher variation between the deterministic and probabilistic estimates of fluoride exposure dose was observed, particularly due to the variations considered in the body weight and water intake. Therefore, it is suggested that wherever possible, probabilistic analysis should be conducted for estimating the quality of groundwater or the associated contaminant risk for better representation of the actual scenario.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely appreciate the detailed, insightful review comments received from the Editors/Reviewers that substantially helped to improve the technical content and clarity of the manuscript.
Author contributions: Conception, literature review, and development of methodology were performed by Saha Dauji and Keesari Tirumalesh. Water samples were collected by Diksha Pant. Chemical analysis was performed by Diksha Pant and Keesari Tirumalesh. Fig. 1 was prepared by Diksha Pant. Statistical analysis and writing of the first draft, along with tables and figures (except Fig. 1) were carried out by Saha Dauji. Revisions were carried out by all authors. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
References
Adeyeye, O. A., C. Xiao, Z. Zhang, A. S. Yawe, and X. Liang. 2021. “Groundwater fluoride chemistry and health risk assessment of multi-aquifers in Jilin Qianan, Northeastern China.” Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 211: 111926. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOENV.2021.111926.
Adimalla, N., H. Qian, and P. Li. 2020. “Entropy water quality index and probabilistic health risk assessment from geochemistry of groundwaters in hard rock terrain of Nanganur County, South India.” Geochemistry 80 (4): 125544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2019.125544.
Aghda, S. M. F., A. Samadi, G. Asadollahfardi, and F. Dastafkan. 2023. “Sustainable rural development based on groundwater quality using fuzzy logic and GIS. A case study: Maku, Iran.” Environ. Eng. Manage. J. 22 (1): 49–59. https://doi.org/http://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2023.005.
Ahada, C. P. S., and S. Suthar. 2019. “Assessment of human health risk associated with high groundwater fluoride intake in Southern Districts of Punjab, India.” Exposure Health 11: 267–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-017-0268-4.
Ali, S., H. Ali, M. Pakdel, S. G. Askari, A. A. Mohammadi, and S. Rezania. 2022. “Spatial analysis and probabilistic risk assessment of exposure to fluoride in drinking water using GIS and Monte Carlo simulation.” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29: 5881–5890. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16075-8.
Ali, S., Y. Fakhri, M. Golbini, S. K. Thakur, A. Alinejad, I. Parseh, S. Shekhar, and P. Bhattacharya. 2019. “Concentration of fluoride in groundwater of India: A systematic review, meta-analysis and risk assessment.” Groundwater Sustainable Dev. 9: 100224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100224.
APHA (American Public Health Association). 1995. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. 19th ed. Washington, DC: APHA.
Ayyub, B. M., and M. M. Gupta. 1998. Uncertainty analysis in engineering and sciences: Fuzzy logic, statistics, and neural network approach. New York: Springer.
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards). 2012. Drinking water specification (second revision) ICS 13.060.20. IS 10500: 2012. New Delhi, India: BIS.
Brindha, K., G. Jagadeshan, L. Kalpana, and L. Elango. 2016. “Fluoride in weathered rock aquifers of southern India: Managed aquifer recharge for mitigation.” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 23: 8302–8316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1356-016-6069-7.
CGWB (Central Ground Water Board). 2013. “Ground water information, Jaipur District, Rajasthan.” Department of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India. Accessed July 22, 2022. http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/Rajasthan/Jaipur.pdf.
Chandra, K. G., and P. Sahu. 2020. “Fluoride contamination and health effects: An Indian scenario.” In Environmental concerns and sustainable development. Vol. 1, edited by V. Shukla, and N. Kumar, 213–233. Singapore: Springer.
Chandrajith, R., U. Abeypala, C. B. Dissanayake, and H. J. Tobschall. 2007. “Fluoride in Ceylon tea and its implications to dental health.” Environ. Geochem. Health 29: 429–434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-007-9087-z.
Choubisa, S. L. 2015. “Industrial fluorosis in domestic goats (Capra hircus) Rajasthan, India.” Fluoride 48 (2): 105–112.
Choubisa, S. L. 2018. “Brief and critical review of endemic hydrofluorosis in Rajasthan, India.” Fluoride 51 (1): 13–33.
Choubisa, S. L., and D. Choubisa. 2015. “Neighborhood fluorosis in people residing in the vicinity of superphosphate fertilizer plants near Udaipur city of Rajasthan (India).” Environ. Monit. Assess. 187 (8): 497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4723-z.
Coleman, H. W., and W. G. Steele. 2009. Experimentation, validation, and uncertainty analysis for engineers. New Jersey: Wiley.
Dauji, S. 2019. “Quantifying and addressing uncertainties in empirical vibration attenuation relationship for underground blast by re-sampling.” SN Appl. Sci. 1: 1350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1381-8.
Dauji, S. 2022. “Estimation of Vs30 bounds from limited soil data considering uncertainty: A practical approach.” Int. J. Geotech. Earthquake Eng. 13 (1): 1–20. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJGEE.303588.
Dauji, S., and S. Karmakar. 2022. “Estimating concrete strength from nondestructive testing with few core tests considering uncertainties.” ASCE-ASME J. Risk Uncertainty Eng. Syst. Part B: Mech. Eng. 8: 041102. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4053639.
De, A., D. Mridha, I. Ray, M. Joardar, A. Das, N. R. Chowdhury, and T. Roychowdhury. 2021. “Fluoride exposure and probabilistic health risk assessment through different agricultural food crops from fluoride endemic bankura and Purulia Districts of West Bengal, India.” Front. Environ. Sci. 9: 713148. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.713148.
Dissanayake, C. B. 1991. “The fluoride problem in the ground water of Sri Lanka—Environmental management and health.” Int. J. Environ. Stud. 38 (2-3): 137–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207239108710658.
Duggal, V., and S. Sharma. 2022. “Fluoride contamination in drinking water and associated health risk assessment in the Malwa Belt of Punjab, India.” Environ. Adv. 8: 100242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2022.100242.
Farooqi, A., H. Masuda, R. Siddiqui, and M. Naseem. 2009. “Sources of arsenic and fluoride in highly contaminated soils causing groundwater contamination in Punjab, Pakistan.” Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 56: 693–706. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-008-9239-x.
Freeze, R. A., and J. A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Fritz, S. J. 1994. “A survey of charge-balance error on published analyses of potable ground and surface waters.” Ground Water 32 (4): 539–546. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1994.tb00888.x.
Grimaldo, M., V. H. Borjaaburto, A. L. Ramirez, M. Ponce, M. Rosas, and F. Diaz-Barriga. 1995. “Endemic fluorosis in San-luis-potosi, Mexico .1. identification of risk-factors associated with human exposure to fluoride.” Environ. Res. 68: 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1995.1004.
Hofer, E. 2018. The uncertainty analysis of model results: A practical guide. Basel, Switzerland: Springer.
Hossain, M. A., M. M. Rahman, M. Murrill, B. Das, B. Roy, S. Dey, D. Maity, and D. Chakraborti. 2013. “Water consumption patterns and factors contributing to water consumption in arsenic affected population of rural West Bengal, India.” Sci. Total Environ. 463–464: 1217–1224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.06.057.
Hussain, I., M. Arif, and J. Hussain. 2012. “Fluoride contamination in drinking water in rural habitations of Central Rajasthan, India.” Environ. Monit. Assess. 184: 5151–5158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2329-7.
Jain, A., and S. Singh. 2014. “Prevalence of fluoride in ground water in rajasthan state: Extent, contamination levels and mitigation.” Open J. Water Pollut. Treat. 2014 (2): 50–57. https://doi.org/10.15764/WPT.2014.02006.
Jha, S. K., A. K. Nayak, and Y. K. Sharma. 2009. “Fluoride occurrence and assessment of exposure dose of fluoride in shallow aquifers of Makur, Unnao district Uttar Pradesh, India.” Environ. Monit. Assess. 156: 561–566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0505-1.
Jha, S. K., R. K. Singh, T. Damodaran, V. K. Mishra, D. K. Sharma, and D. Rai. 2013. “Fluoride in groundwater: Toxicological exposure and remedies.” J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B 16 (1): 52–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2013.769420.
Karunanidhi, D., P. Aravinthasamy, D. Kumar, T. Subramani, and P. D. Roy. 2020. “Sobol sensitivity approach for the appraisal of geomedical health risks associated with oral intake and dermal pathways of groundwater fluoride in a semi-arid region of south India.” Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 194: 110438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110438.
Kaur, L., M. S. Rishi, and A. U. Siddiqui. 2020. “Deterministic and probabilistic health risk assessment techniques to evaluate non-carcinogenic human health risk (NHHR) due to fluoride and nitrate in groundwater of Panipat, Haryana, India.” Environ. Pollut. 259: 113711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113711.
Keesari, T., D. Pant, A. Roy, U. K. Sinha, A. Jaryal, M. Singh, and S. K. Jain. 2021. “Fluoride geochemistry and exposure risk through groundwater sources in northeastern parts of Rajasthan, India.” Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 80: 294–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00794-z.
Khadilkar, V., et al. 2015. “Revised IAP growth charts for height, weight and body mass index for 5- to 18-year-old Indian children.” Indian Pediatr. 52: 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13312-015-0566-5.
Kom, K. P., B. Gurugnanam, and S. Bairavi. 2022. “Non-carcinogenic health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride contamination in the groundwater of Noyyal basin, India.” Geod. Geodyn. 13: 619–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geog.2022.04.003.
Lapworth, D. J., G. Krishan, A. M. MacDonald, and M. S. Rao. 2017. “Groundwater quality in the alluvial aquifer system of northwest India: New evidence of the extent of anthropogenic and geogenic contamination.” Sci. Total Environ. 599–600: 1433–1444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.223.
Li, B., W. Zhang, Z. Liu, and H. Meng. 2021. “Groundwater quality evaluation model based on set pair analysis and its application.” In Proc., of Institution of Civil Engineers: Water Management. London: ICE Publishing.
Li, F., J. Zhu, X. Deng, Y. Zhao, and S. Li. 2018. “Assessment and uncertainty analysis of groundwater risk.” Environ. Res. 160: 140–151. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.09.030.
Li, X., R. Zuo, Y. Teng, J. Wang, and B. Wang. 2015. “Development of relative risk model for regional groundwater risk assessment: A case study in the Lower Liaohe River plain, China.” PLoS One 10 (5): e0128249. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128249.
Lombardi, A. M. 2017. “The epistemic and aleatory uncertainties of the ETAS-type models: An application to the Central Italy seismicity.” Sci. Rep. 7: 11812. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11925-3.
Maithani, P. B., R. Gurjar, R. Banerjee, B. K. Balaji, S. Ramachandran, and R. Singh. 1998. “Anomalous fluoride in groundwater from western part of Sirohi district, Rajasthan and its crippling effects on human health.” Curr. Sci. 74 (9): 773–777.
Maiti, S., V. C. Erram, G. Gupta, R. K. Tiwari, U. D. Kulkarni, and R. R. Sangpal. 2013. “Assessment of groundwater quality: A fusion of geochemical and geophysical information via Bayesian neural networks.” Environ. Monit. Assess. 185: 3445–3465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2802-y.
Modarres, M., M. Kaminskiy, and V. Krivtsov. 2010. Reliability engineering and risk analysis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
MoDWS (Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation). 2015. “Annual report (2014-2015).” Accessed April 22, 2023. https://jalshakti-ddws.gov.in/sites/default/files/Annual-Report-%20Drinking%20Water_0.pdf.
Mondal, D., M. Banerjee, M. Kundu, N. Banerjee, U. Bhattacharya, A. K. Giri, B. Ganguli, S. S. Roy, and D. A. Polya. 2010. “Comparison of drinking water, raw rice and cooking of rice as arsenic exposure routes in three contrasting areas of West Bengal, India.” Environ. Geochem. Health 32: 463–477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-010-9319-5.
Mondal, N. C., K. K. Tiwari, K. C. Sharma, and S. Ahmed. 2016. “A diagnosis of groundwater quality from a semiarid region in Rajasthan, India.” Arabian J. Geosci. 9 (12). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2619-z.
Mridha, D., P. Priyadarshini, K. Bhaskar, A. Gaurav, A. De, A. Das, M. Joardar, N. R. Chowdhury, and T. Roychowdhury. 2021. “Fluoride exposure and its potential health risk assessment in drinking water and staple food in the population from fluoride endemic regions of Bihar, India.” Groundwater Sustainable Dev. 13: 100558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2021.100558.
Mukherjee, I., U. K. Singh, and P. K. Patra. 2019. “Exploring a multi-exposure-pathway approach to assess human health risk associated with groundwater fluoride exposure in the semi-arid region of east India.” Chemosphere 233: 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.278.
Murray, J. J. 1973. “A history of water fluoridation.” Br. Dent. J. 134: 250–254. 299–302, 347–350. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.4802997.
NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology). 2023a. “Combined standard uncertainty.” Accessed April 22, 2023. https://www.nist.gov/pml/nist-technical-note-1297/nist-tn-1297-5-combined-standard-uncertainty.
NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology). 2023b. “Expanded uncertainty.” Accessed April 22, 2023. https://www.nist.gov/pml/nist-technical-note-1297/nist-tn-1297-6-expanded-uncertainty.
NRC (National Research Council). 1993. Ground water vulnerability assessment: Predicting relative contamination potential under conditions of uncertainty. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Panneerselvam, B., P. S. Kumar, K. Shankar, R. Nagavinothini, and K. Vijayasurya. 2020. “Non-carcinogenic risk assessment of groundwater in southern part of Salem district in Tamil Nadu, India.” J. Chil. Chem. Soc. 65: 4697–4707. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-97072020000104697.
Pant, D., T. Keesari, M. S. Rishi, D. A. Sharma, A. Jaryal, S. N. Kamble, and U. K. Sinha. 2020. “Hydrochemical evolution of groundwater in the waterlogged area of southwest Punjab.” Arabian J. Geosci. 13: 773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05795-9.
Podorski, J. E., P. Labhasetwar, D. Saha, and M. Berg. 2018. “Prediction modeling and mapping of groundwater fluoride contamination throughout India.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 52: 9889–9898. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b01679.
Poonia, T., N. Singh, and M. C. Garg. 2021. “Contamination of arsenic, chromium and fluoride in the Indian groundwater: A review, meta‐analysis and cancer risk assessment.” Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 18: 2891–2902. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-03043-x.
Rahnama, E., O. Bazrafshan, G. Asadollahfardi, and S. Y. Samadi. 2021. “Uncertainty analysis for the data-driven model using Monte Carlo simulations to predict sodium adsorption rate: A case study, Aras, Sepid-Rud, and Karun Rivers in Iran.” Preprint. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1058278/v1.
Saxena, U., and S. Saxena. 2014. “Groundwater quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.” Int. J. Environ. Sci. 5 (1): 144–163.
Seifi, A., M. Dehghani, and V. P. Singh. 2020. “Uncertainty analysis of water quality index (WQI) for groundwater quality evaluation: Application of Monte-Carlo method for weight allocation.” Ecol. Indic. 117: 106653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106653.
Sharma, D. A., T. Keesari, M. S. Rishi, N. Thakur, D. Pant, P. Sangwan, B. K. Sahoo, and N. Kishore. 2020. “Distribution and correlation of Radon and Uranium and associated hydrogeochemical processes in alluvial aquifers of Northwest India.” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27: 38901–38915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10015-8.
Sharma, D. A., M. S. Rishi, U. K. Sinha, and T. Keesari. 2016. “Assessment of groundwater quality of Bathinda district, Punjab with reference to nitrate contamination.” J. Appl. Geochem. 18 (4): 480–489.
Sharma, G. K., R. K. Jena, P. Ray, K. K. Yadav, P. C. Moharana, M. M. S. Cabral-Pinto, and G. Bordoloi. 2021. “Evaluating the geochemistry of groundwater contamination with iron and manganese and probabilistic human health risk assessment in endemic areas of the world’s largest River Island, India.” Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 87: 103690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2021.103690.
Shaw, B. D. 2017. Uncertainty analysis of experimental data with R. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Shome, S., P. Roy, M. Pal, and P. Bharati. 2014. “Variation of adult heights and weights in India: State & zonewise analysis.” Hum. Biol. Rev. 3 (3): 242–257.
Singh, A., A. K. Patel, and M. Kumar. 2020. “Mitigating the risk of arsenic and fluoride contamination of groundwater through a multi-model framework of statistical assessment and natural remediation techniques.” Springer Trans. Civ. Environ. Eng. 15: 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9771-5.
Su, C., Y. Wang, X. Xie, and Y. Zhu. 2015. “An isotope hydrochemical approach to understand fluoride release into groundwaters of the Datong Basin, Northern China.” Environ. Sci. Processes Impacts 17: 791–801. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4EM00584H.
Susheela, A. K. 1999. “Fluorosis management programme in India.” Curr. Sci. 77 (10): 1–11.
Suthar, S., V. K. Garg, S. Jangir, S. Kaur, N. Goswami, and S. Singh. 2008. “Fluoride contamination in drinking water in rural habitations of Northern Rajasthan, India.” Environ. Monit. Assess. 145: 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-0011-x.
Swain, S. K., and R. K. Patel. 2002. “Fluoride in water of rural areas of Orissa.” In Proc., 28th WEDC Conf., Sustainable Environmental Sanitation and Water Services. Loughborough, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC)/Loughborough University of Technology.
Tiwari, K. K., G. Krishan, B. Anjali, G. Prasad, N. C. Mondal, and V. Bhardwaj. 2020. “Evaluation of fluoride contamination in groundwater in a semi-arid region, Dausa District, Rajasthan, India.” Groundwater Sustainable Dev. 11: 100465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100465.
Tung, Y.-K., and B.-C. Yen. 2005. Hydrosystems engineering uncertainty analysis. New York: McGraw Hill.
USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2004. Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part A). 2004, EPA/540/1–89/002 Vol. I. Washington, DC: USEPA.
Vikas, C. 2008. “Geochemistry of groundwater—an overview of sporadic nitrate contamination in parts of Jaipur district, Rajasthan. India.” J. Appl. Geochem. 10 (2): 166–172.
Viswanathan, G., A. Jaswanth, S. Gopalakrishnan, and S. Siva ilango. 2009. “Mapping of fluoride endemic areas and assessment of fluoride exposure.” Sci. Total Environ. 407: 1579–1587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.10.020.
WHO (World Health Organization). 2017. Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth ed. incorporating the 1st addendum. ISBN: 978-92-4-154995-0. Bern, Switzerland: WHO.
World Bank. 2010. Deep wells and prudence: Towards pragmatic action for addressing groundwater overexploitation in India. Washington, DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank.
Wu, B., Y. Zhang, X.-X. Zhang, and S.-P. Cheng. 2011. “Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the source water and drinking water of China: Quantitative analysis based on published monitoring data.” Sci. Total Environ. 410-411: 112–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.09.046.
WWAP (World Water Assessment Programme). 2012. The united nations world water development report 4: Managing water under uncertainty and risk. Paris: UNESCO.
Yu, H., X. Wen, M. Wu, D. Sheng, J. Wu, and Y. Zhao. 2022. “Data-based groundwater quality estimation and uncertainty analysis for irrigation agriculture.” Agric. Water Manage. 262: 107423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.107423.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste
Volume 27 • Issue 4 • October 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 19, 2023
Accepted: May 25, 2023
Published online: Jul 28, 2023
Published in print: Oct 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Dec 28, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.