Physicochemical and Strength Behavior in Lime-Treated Soil Submerged under Gypsum and Sodium Sulfate Contamination
Publication: Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste
Volume 27, Issue 2
Abstract
The efficacy of lime treatment to improve sulfatic soils has previously been explored. The formation of ettringite (E) and thaumasite due to the reaction between lime–clay–sulfate in the presence of moisture leads to the distress of lime-treated sulfatic soils. Further, sulfate contamination in the field that is due to industrial chemical discharges, groundwater contamination, accidental spillage of chemicals, acid rain, acid mine drainage, or any other sources occurs frequently. The alteration in soil behavior that has been subjected to prolonged submergence or soaking under sulfate contamination significantly affects the strength, stiffness, and durability of lime-treated soils. Therefore, the behavior of lime-treated soil that has been submerged or soaked under sulfate contaminants at different times has been addressed in this study. This study explored the compaction characteristics [maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum water content (OWC)], physicochemical [pH and electrical conductivity (EC)] and strength behavior [unconfined compressive strength (UCS)] of a lime-treated soil that was submerged under gypsum and sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) solutions with varying sulfate concentrations (i.e., 0–30,000 ppm) for different periods. The strength of the lime-treated soil that was subjected to sulfate contamination (i.e., designated as submergence) was compared with a lime-treated sulfatic soil (i.e., designated as nonsubmergence). The submergence of the lime-treated soil that was subjected to sulfate contamination resulted in a reduction in strength compared with the same under the nonsubmergence conditions. The strength of the lime-treated soil that was subjected to Na2SO4 contamination reduced with the increase in submergence ≤28 days; however, a marginal achievement in strength was witnessed with gypsum contamination, particularly at a higher concentration of 16,000 ppm. Therefore, the prolonged submergence of the treated soil under sulfate contamination ≤28 days led to a reduction in the strength of the lime-treated expansive soil. In addition, variations in the strength of the lime-treated soil that was subjected to submergence conditions depended on several factors, such as submergence period, type of sulfate, and concentration. The mechanisms of strength variations in the lime-treated soil for submergence and nonsubmergence conditions were determined by performing microanalyses and physicochemical examinations. The formation and growth of E and cementitious compounds were controlled by the availability of water, sulfate ions (SO42–), and the duration of submergence, which led to alterations in the soil matrix and variations in the strength behavior of lime-treated soil.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the esteemed reviewers and editor for their critical observations and remarks which helped significantly to improve the quality of the manuscript.
References
Abdi, M. R. 1992. “Effect of calcium sulphate on lime-stabilized kaolinite.” Ph.D. thesis, Polytechnic of Wales. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.304789.
Abdi, M. R., A. Askarian, and M. S. S. Gonbad. 2020. “Effects of sodium and calcium sulphates on volume stability and strength of lime-stabilized kaolinite.” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 79: 941–957. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01592-1.
Alazigha, D. P., B. Indraratna, J. S. Vinod, and A. Heitor. 2018. “Mechanisms of stabilization of expansive soil with lignosulfonate admixture.” Transp. Geotech. 14: 81–92.
Al-Mukhtar, M., S. Khattab, and J. F. Alcover. 2012. “Microstructure and geotechnical properties of lime-treated expansive clayey soil.” Eng. Geol. 139–140: 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.04.004.
Al-Mukhtar, M., A. Lasledj, and J. F. Alcover. 2010. “Behaviour and mineralogy changes in lime-treated expansive soil at 50°C.” Appl. Clay Sci. 50: 199–203. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.clay.2010.07.022.
Al-Zubaydi, A. H. T. 2011. “Effect of static soaking under different temperatures on the lime stabilized gypseous soil.” Tikrit J. Eng. Sci. 18 (3): 42–51. https://doi.org/10.25130/tjes.18.3.05.
Bahmani, S. H., B. B. K. Huat, A. Asadi, and N. Farzadnia. 2014. “Stabilization of residual soil using SiO2 nanoparticles and cement.” Constr. Build. Mater. 64: 350–359. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.
Barooah, P. K., and M. K. Baruah. 1996. “Sulphur in assam coal.” Fuel Process. Technol. 46 (2): 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-3820(95)00058-5.
Bell, F. G. 1996. “Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soil.” Eng. Geol. 42 (4): 223–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(96)00028-2.
Bishop, J. L. 1994. “Infrared spectroscopic analyses on the nature of water in montmorillonite.” Clays Clay Miner. 42 (6): 702–716. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1994.0420606.
Brand, T. P. H. V. D., K. Roest, G. H. Chen, D. Brdjanovic, and M. C. M. V. Loosdrecht. 2015. “Long-term effect of seawater on sulfate reduction in wastewater treatment.” Environ. Eng. Sci. 32: 622–630. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2014.0306.
Chakraborty, S., and S. Nair. 2020. “Impact of curing time on moisture-induced damage in lime-treated soils.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 21 (2): 215–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2018.1453068.
Consoli, N. C., E. J. B. Marin, R. A. Q. Samaniego, H. C. S. Filho, T. Miranda, and N. Cristelo. 2019. “Effect of mellowing and coal fly ash addition on behavior of sulfate-rich dispersive clay after lime stabilization.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 31 (6): 04019071. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002699.
Dhar, S., and M. Hussain. 2019. “The strength and microstructural behavior of lime stabilized subgrade soil in road construction.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 15 (4): 471–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2019.1598623.
Eades, J. L., and R. E. Grim. 1966. A quick test to determine lime requirements for lime stabilization, 51–63. Highway Research Board Bulletin 262. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Eisazadeh, A., K. A. Kassim, and H. Nur. 2012. “Solid-state NMR and FTIR studies of lime stabilized montmorillonitic and lateritic clays.” Appl. Clay Sci. 67–68: 5–10. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.clay.2012.05.006.
Eswaran, H., and G. T. Tong. 1991. “Properties, genesis, classification, and distribution of soils with gypsum.” In Occurrence, characteristics, and genesis of carbonate, gypsum, and silica accumulations in soils, edited by W. D. Nettleton. SSSA Special Publication No. 26. Madison, WI: Soil Science Society of America.
Gadouri, H., K. Harichane, and M. Ghrici. 2016. “Effects of Na2SO4 on the geotechnical properties of clayey soils stabilised with mineral additives.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 11 (5): 500–512. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2016.1238562.
Gadouri, H., K. Harichane, and M. Ghrici. 2017. “Effect of calcium sulphate on the geotechnical properties of stabilized clayey soils.” Period. Polytech., Civ. Eng. 61 (2): 256–271. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPci.9359.
Gupta, S. K., P. C. Sharma, and S. K. Chaudhari. 2019. Handbook of saline and alkali soils: Diagnosis, reclamation and management. Jodhpur, India: Scientific Publishers.
Holt, C. C., R. J. Freer-Hewish, and G. S. Ghataora. 2000. “The use of lime-treated British clays in pavement construction. Part 2: The effect of mellowing on the stabilization process.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 141 (4): 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1680/tran.2000.141.4.207.
Hu, Z., Z. Jia, and L. G. Z. Yuan. 2016. “The effects of sulfate on the strength of lime-fly ash stabilized soil.” Electron. J. Geotech. Eng. 21 (10): 3669–3676.
Hunter, D. 1988. “Lime-induced heave in sulfate-bearing clay soils.” J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (2): 150–167. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:2(150).
Ike, E. 2020. “Effect of ionic concentrations and pH on the Atterberg limit of cohesive soil.” Global J. Pure Appl. Sci. 26: 73–85. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjpas.v26i1.9.
Ikeagwuani, C. C., and D. C. Nwonu. 2019. “Emerging trends in expansive soil stabilisation: A review.” J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 11: 423–440. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jrmge.2018.08.013.
Ilknur, B., K. M. Kubilay, O. Sadik, K. Muhammet, C. Senol, O. Tugba, M. Aykan, and O. Kivicim. 2021. “Effects of soaking on a lime stabilized clay and implications for pavement design.” Geomech. Eng. 24 (2): 115–127. https://doi.org/10.12989/gae.2021.24.2.115.
IS (Indian Standard). 1970. Classification and identification of soil. 1498-1970. New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standard). 1972. Methods of test for soils: Determination of shrinkage factors. 2720 (Part 6)-1972. New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standard). 1973. Methods of test for soils: Determination of unconfined compressive strength. 2720 (Part 10)-1973 (first revision). New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standards). 1977. Methods of test for soils: Determination of free swell index of soil. 2720 (Part 40)-1977. New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standard). 1980. Methods of test for soils: Determination of specific gravity. 2720 (Part 3/Set 1)-1980 (second revision). New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standard). 1985a. Methods of test for soils: Grain size analysis. 2720 (Part 4)-1985. New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standard). 1985b. Methods of test for soils: Determination of liquid limit and plastic limit. 2720 (Part 5)-1985 (second revision). New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standard). 1986. Determination of consolidation properties. 2720 (Part 15)-1986 (second revision). New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standard). 1987. Methods of test for soils: Determination of pH value. 2720 (Part 26)-1987 (second revision). New Delhi, India: BIS.
IS (Indian Standard). 2000. Determination of the specific electrical conductivity of soils-method of test. 14767-2000. New Delhi, India: BIS.
Jha, A. K., and P. V. Sivapullaiah. 2015. “Mechanism of improvement in the strength and volume change behavior of lime stabilized soil.” Eng. Geol. 198: 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.08.020.
Jha, A. K., and P. V. Sivapullaiah. 2017. “Physical and strength development in lime treated gypseous soil with fly ash—Micro-analyses.” Appl. Clay Sci. 145: 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.05.016.
Jha, A. K., and P. V. Sivapullaiah. 2020. “Lime stabilization of soil: A physico-chemical and micro-mechanistic perspective.” Indian Geotech. J. 50: 339–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-019-00371-9.
Joshi, D. C. 1999. “Gypsiferous soils of arid Rajasthan.” In Geological evolution of northwestern India, edited by B. S. Paliwal, 338–347. Jodhpur, India: Scientific Publisher.
Joshi, D. C., J. S. Choudhary, and S. V. Jain. 1973. “Distribution of sulphur fractions in relation to forms of phosphorus in soils of Rajasthan.” Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 21 (3): 289–294.
Khadka, S. D., P. W. Jayawickrama, S. Senadheera, and B. Segvic. 2020. “Stabilization of highly expansive soils containing sulfate using metakaolin and fly ash based geopolymer modified with lime and gypsum.” Transp. Geotech. 23: 100327. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100327.
Khattab, S. A. A., M. Al-Mukhtar, and J. M. Fleureau. 2007. “Long-Term stability characteristics of a lime-treated plastic soil.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 19: 358–366. https://doi.org/10.1061/_ASCE_08991561_2007_19:4_358_.
Kinuthia, J. M., S. Wild, and G. I. Jones. 1999. “Effects of monovalent and divalent metal sulphates on consistency and compaction of lime-stabilized kaolinite.” Appl. Clay Sci. 14 (1): 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1317(98)00046-5.
Kumar, K. S. R., and T. Thyagaraj. 2021. “Comparison of lime treatment techniques for deep stabilization of expansive soils.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 15 (8): 1021–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2020.1775359.
Le Borgne, T. 2010. “Effects of potential deleterious chemical compounds on soil stabilization.” Ph.D. thesis, Nancy-Univ. http://hdl.hadle.net/10068/842439.
Little, D., and S. Nair. 2009. Recommended practice for stabilization of subgrade soils and base materials. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Little, D., S. Nair, and B. Herbert. 2010. “Addressing sulfate-induced heave in lime treated soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (1): 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1061/_ASCE_GT.1943-5606.0000185.
Mahedi, M., B. Cetin, and D. J. White. 2020. “Cement, lime, and fly ashes in stabilizing expansive soils: Performance evaluation and comparison.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 32 (7): 04020177. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003260.
Mitchell, J. K. 1986. “Practical problems from surprising soil behavior.” J. Geotech. Eng. 112: 255–289. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9410(1986)112:3(255).
Mitchell, J. K., and D. Dermatas. 1992. “Clay soil heave caused by lime sulfate reactions.” In Innovations and uses for lime, edited by D. D. Walker, T. B. Hardy, D. C. Hoffman, and D. D. Stanley, 41–64.West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Moghal, A. A. B., M. Ashfaq, A. A. K. H. Al-Obaid, M. F. Abbas, A. M. Al-Mahbashi, and A. Ali Shaker. 2021. “Compaction delay and its effect on the geotechnical properties of lime treated semi-arid soils.” Road Mater. Pavement Des. 22 (11): 2626–2640. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14680629.2020.1784256.
Nair, S., and D. Little. 2011. “Mechanism of distress associated with sulphate-induced heaving in lime-treated soils.” J. Transp. Res. Board 2212: 82–90. https://doi.org/10.3141/2212-09.
NLA (National Lime Association). 2000. “Technical memorandum: Guidelines for stabilization of soils containing sulfates, Austin white lime, chemical lime, Texas lime.” Accessed August 15, 2000. http://www.lime.org/documents/publications/free_downloads/technical-memorandum.pdf.
Phanikumar, B. R., C. Amshumalini, and R. Karthika. 2009. Effect of lime on engineering behaviour of expansive clays. Guntur, India: IGC.
Puppala, A. J., S. S. C. Congress, N. Talluri, and E. Wattanasanthicharoen. 2019. “Sulphate-heaving studies on chemically treated sulfate-rich geomaterials.” Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 31 (6): 04019076. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002729.
Puppala, A. J., N. Talluri, S. S. C. Congress, and A. Gaily. 2018. “Ettringite induced heaving in stabilized high sulfate soils.” Innovative Infrastruct. Solutions 3: 72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-018-0179-7.
Rahmat, M. N., and J. M. Kinuthia. 2011. “Effects of mellowing sulfate-bearing clay soil stabilized with wastepaper sludge ash for road construction.” Eng. Geol. 117 (3–4): 170–179. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.10.015.
Raja, P. S. K., and T. Thyagaraj. 2020a. “Effect of compaction time delay on compaction and strength behavior of lime-treated expansive soil contacted with sulfate.” Innovative Infrastruct. Solutions 5: 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-020-0268-2.
Raja, P. S. K., and T. Thyagaraj. 2020b. “Sulfate effects on sulfate-resistant cement–treated expansive soil.” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 79: 2367–2380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01714-9.
Raja, P. S. K., and T. Thyagaraj. 2021a. “Effect of short-term sulphate contamination on lime-stabilized expansive soil.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 15 (8): 964–976. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2019.1641665.
Raja, P. S. K., and T. Thyagaraj. 2021b. “Significance of compaction time delay on compaction and strength characteristics of sulfate resistant cement-treated expansive soil.” J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 13: 1193–1202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2021.03.003.
Rajasekaran, G. 2005. “Sulphate attack and ettringite formation in the lime and cement stabilized marine clays.” Ocean Eng. 32: 1133–1159. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2004.08.012.
Razouki, S. S., and D. K. Kuttah. 2004. “Effect of soaking period and surcharge load on resilient modulus and California bearing ratio of gypsiferous soils.” Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 37 (2): 155–164. https://doi.org/10.1144/1470-9236/04-002.
Razouki, S. S., and D. K. Kuttah. 2020. “Effect of relative compaction on water absorption and gypsum dissolution in gypsum-rich clayey CBR samples.” Transp. Infrastruct. Geotechnol. 7 (4): 590–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40515-020-00107-w.
Razouki, S. S., and D. K. Kuttah. 2021. “Behaviour of fine-grained gypsum-rich soil under triaxial tests.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Constr. Mater. 174 (5): 240–248. https://doi.org/10.1680/jcoma.18.00041.
Scholtzova, E., L. Kuckova, J. Kozisek, and D. Tunega. 2015. “Structural and spectroscopic characterization of ettringite mineral combined DFT and experimental study.” J. Mol. Struct. 1100: 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2015.06.075.
Sharma, L. K., N. N. Sirdesai, K. M. Sharma, and T. N. Singh. 2018. “Experimental study to examine the independent roles of lime and cement on the stabilization of a mountain soil: A comparative study.” Appl. Clay Sci. 152: 183–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.11.012.
Shivanshi, A. K. Jha, and M. P. Akhtar. 2022a. “Influence of soluble sodium sulphate contamination on physical and strength behavior of untreated and lime treated soil.” KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 26: 3815–3830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-022-1964-6.
Shivanshi, A. K. Jha, V. B. Singh, A. K. Jain, and M. P. Akhtar. 2022b. “Effect of soluble gypsum on swell behaviour of lime-treated expansive soil-A micro-level investigation. geomechanics and geoengineering.” Geomech. Geoeng. 17 (6): 1786–1800. https://doi.org/10.1080/17486025.2021.1975046.
Silva, A. J., M. B. Varesche, E. Foresti, and M. Zaiat. 2002. “Sulphate removal from industrial wastewater using a packed bed anaerobic reactor.” Process Biochem. 37: 927–935. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-9592(01)00297-7.
Sivapullaiah, P. V., and A. K. Jha. 2014. “Gypsum induced strength behaviour of Fly Ash-lime stabilized expansive soil.” Geotech. Geol. Eng. 32: 1261–1273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-014-9799-7.
Sivapullaiah, P. V., A. Sridharan, and K. V. B. Raju. 2000a. “Role of amount and type of clay in the lime stabilization of soils.” Ground Improv. 4: 37–45. https://doi.org/10.1680/grim.2000.4.1.37.
Sivapullaiah, P. V., A. Sridharan, and H. N. Ramesh. 2000b. “Strength behaviour of lime treated soils in the presence of sulphate.” Can. Geotech. J. 37: 1358–1367. https://doi.org/10.1139/t00-052.
Solis, R., and J. Zhang. 2008. “Gypsiferous soils: An engineering problem.” In Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Karst, Geotechnical Special Publication 183, edited by L. B. Yuhr, E. C. Alexander, and B. F. Beck, 742–749. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Sridharan, A., and K. Prakash. 2000. “Classification procedures for expansive soils.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Geotech. Eng. 143 (4): 235–240. https://doi.org/10.1680/geng.2000.143.4.235.
Sridharan, A., and P. V. Sivapullaiah. 2005. “Mini compaction test apparatus for fine grained soils.” Geotech. Test. J. 28 (3): 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ12542.
Taher, M. T., A. M. Amine, and B. K. Damarany. 2020. “Physico-chemical properties of ordinary Portland cement pastes after partial substitution of gypsum with thermally treatment phosphogypsum.” Adv. J. Chem. Sect. A 3 (3): 301–317. https://doi.org/10.33945/SAMI/AJCA.2020.3.8.
Talluri, N., A. Puppala, C. Bhaskar, G. Ahmed, and H. Pat. 2013. “Stabilization of high-sulfate soils by extended mellowing.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2363: 96–104. https://doi.org/10.3141/2363-11.
Thompson, M. R. 1970. “Suggested method for mixture design procedure for lime-treated soils.” In Special procedures for testing soil and rock for engineering purposes. 5th ed., 430–440. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Watson, A. 1979. “Gypsum crusts in deserts.” J. Arid. Environ. 2 (1): 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1963(18)31700-2.
Wild, S., M. R. Abdi, and G. Leng-Ward. 1993. “Sulphate expansion of lime-stabilized kaolinite: II. Reaction products and expansion.” Clay Miner. 28 (4): 569–584. https://doi.org/ 10.1180/claymin.1993.028.4.07.
Zhao, X., A. Shen, Y. Guo, P. Li, and Z. Lv. 2017. “Pavement mechanic response of sulfate saline soil subgrade section based on fluid–structure interaction model.” Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol. 10: 497–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijprt.2017.03.006.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste
Volume 27 • Issue 2 • April 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jun 22, 2022
Accepted: Nov 2, 2022
Published online: Jan 23, 2023
Published in print: Apr 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Jun 23, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.