Abstract
A research study was conducted to accelerate engineering property improvements by using novel silica-based coadditives along with a traditional calcium (Ca)-based stabilizer. Silica-based compounds, crystalline-silica (CS) rich waste product, and laboratory-grade nanosilica (NS) were used as coadditives with dolomitic hydrated lime to treat problematic expansive soil to study their efficacy in accelerating improvements in various engineering characteristics. The optimum dosages of the CS and NS additives with dolomitic hydrated lime were first determined based on unconfined compressive strength property, before and after capillary soaking. These dosages were subsequently corroborated by performing one-parameter and multiparameter statistical analyses. Using these optimized dosages, various engineering tests were performed on the treated soils. These tests included free-swell and linear shrinkage strains, unconfined strength with and without capillary soaking, and resilient modulus studies at curing periods of 0 (6 h), three, and seven days. Supplemental microstructural analyses were performed to gain insights into the factors responsible for the observed improvements in engineering properties. Test results indicated that treatment with hydrated lime and both silica-based coadditives is effective in stabilizing problematics soil as compared with lime treatment alone. Among the two silica-based coadditives, NS treatment provided comparatively higher accelerated improvements in the soil properties after seven days of curing than CS treatment. Mineralogical studies revealed that NS is more reactive than CS as a coadditive; hence, NS has been effective in providing equivalent long-term engineering strength gains while reducing swelling- and shrinkage-related volume-change properties in a relatively short time period.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
This work was also made possible in part by NSF Industry-University Cooperative Research Center (I/UCRC) program funded Center for Integration of Composites into Infrastructure (CICI) site at Texas A&M University, NSF PD: Dr. Prakash Balan; Award #2017796. The authors would also like to thank Mr. Krishneshwar Ramineni for his help with microstructural tests at CIR.
References
AASHTO 1993. Guide for design of pavement structures. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
AASHTO. 2003. Standard method of test for determining the resilient modulus of soils and aggregate materials. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
Aldaood, A., M. Bouasker, and M. Al-Mukhtar. 2014. “Geotechnical properties of lime-treated gypseous soils.” Appl. Clay Sci. 88–89 (Feb): 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2013.12.015.
Al-Rawas, A. A., and M. F. A. Goosen. 2006. Expansive soils: Recent advances in characterization and treatment. London: Taylor & Francis.
ASTM. 2010. Standard test methods for moisture-density (Unit Weight) relations of soil-cement mixtures. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2016. Standard test methods for specific gravity of soil solids by water pycnometer. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2018a. Standard specification for quicklime and hydrated lime for soil stabilization. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2018b. Standard test method for unconfined compressive strength of compacted soil-lime mixtures (Withdrawn 2018). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2018c. Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2019. Standard test method for using pH to estimate the soil-lime proportion requirement for soil stabilization. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2020. Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2021a. Standard test method for particle-size distribution (Gradation) of fine-grained soils using the sedimentation (hydrometer) analysis. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2021b. Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3)). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2021c. Standard test methods for one-dimensional swell or collapse of soils. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bahmani, S. H., N. Farzadnia, A. Asadi, and B. B. K. Huat. 2016. “The effect of size and replacement content of nanosilica on strength development of cement treated residual soil.” Constr. Build. Mater. 118 (Aug): 294–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.05.075.
Bahmani, S. H., B. B. K. Huat, A. Asadi, and N. Farzadnia. 2014. “Stabilization of residual soil using nanoparticles and cement.” Constr. Build. Mater. 64 (Jul): 350–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.086.
Bakharev, T., J. G. Sanjayan, and Y.-B. Cheng. 1999. “Effect of elevated temperature curing on properties of alkali-activated slag concrete.” Cem. Concr. Res. 29 (10): 1619–1625. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00143-X.
Behnood, A. 2018. “Soil and clay stabilization with calcium- and non-calcium-based additives: A state-of-the-art review of challenges, approaches and techniques.” Transp. Geotech. 17 (Mar): 14–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2018.08.002.
Bell, F. G. 1996. “Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils.” Eng. Geol. 42 (4): 223–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(96)00028-2.
Biswas, N., A. J. Puppala, S. Chakraborty, and M. A. Khan. 2021. “Utilization of silica-based admixture to improve the durability of lime-treated expansive soil.” In Proc., IFCEE 2021, 233–242. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Brough, A., and A. Atkinson. 2002. “Sodium silicate-based, alkali-activated slag mortars.” Cem. Concr. Res. 32 (6): 865–879. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00717-2.
Chakraborty, S., and S. Nair. 2017. “Impact of different hydrated cementitious phases on moisture-induced damage in lime-stabilised subgrade soils.” Road Mater. Pavement Des. 19 (6): 1389–1405. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2017.1314222.
Chakraborty, S., and S. Nair. 2020. “Impact of curing time on moisture-induced damage in lime-treated soils.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 21 (2): 215–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2018.1453068.
Chakraborty, S., A. J. Puppala, and N. Biswas. 2022. “Role of crystalline silica admixture in mitigating ettringite-induced heave in lime-treated sulfate-rich soils.” Géotechnique 72 (5): 438–454. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.20.P.154.
Chen, R., V. P. Drnevich, and R. K. Daita. 2009. “Short-term electrical conductivity and strength development of lime kiln dust modified soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 135 (4): 590–594. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2009)135:4(590).
Chittoori, B. C. S. 2008. “Clay mineralogy effects on long-term performance of chemically treated expansive clays.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Arlington.
Chittoori, B. C. S., A. J. Puppala, T. Wejrungsikul, and L. R. Hoyos. 2013. “Experimental studies on stabilized clays at various leaching cycles.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139 (10): 1665–1675. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000920.
Christopher, B. R., C. W. Schwartz, R. Boudreaux, and R. R. Berg. 2006. Geotechnical aspects of pavements. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
Çokça, E. 2001. “Use of class c fly ashes for the stabilization of an expansive soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 127 (7): 568–573. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2001)127:7(568).
Das, J. T. 2018. Assessment of sustainability and resilience in transportation infrastructure geotechnics. Arlington, TX: Univ. of Texas at Arlington.
Dash, S. K., and M. Hussain. 2012. “Lime stabilization of soils: Reappraisal.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 24 (6): 707–714. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000431.
Dempsey, B. J., and M. R. Thompson. 1968. Durability properties of lime-soil mixtures. Washington, DC: Highway Research Record.
Dhar, S., and M. Hussain. 2021. “The strength and microstructural behavior of lime stabilized subgrade soil in road construction.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 15 (4): 471–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2019.1598623.
Givi, A. N., S. A. Rashid, F. N. A. Aziz, and M. A. M. Salleh. 2013. “Influence of 15 and 80 nano-SiO2 particles addition on mechanical and physical properties of ternary blended concrete incorporating rice husk ash.” J. Exp. Nanosci. 8 (1): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/17458080.2010.548834.
Gomes Correia, A., M. G. Winter, and A. J. Puppala. 2016. “A review of sustainable approaches in transport infrastructure geotechnics.” Transp. Geotech. 7 (Aug): 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2016.03.003.
Han, Z., and S. K. Vanapalli. 2016. “Stiffness and shear strength of unsaturated soils in relation to soil-water characteristic curve.” Géotechnique 66 (8): 627–647. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.15.P.104.
He, Y., X. Zhao, L. Lu, L. J. Struble, and S. Hu. 2011. “Effect of C/S ratio on morphology and structure of hydrothermally synthesized calcium silicate hydrate.” J. Wuhan Univ. Technol. Mater. Sci. Ed. 26 (4): 770–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11595-011-0308-z.
Hilbig, H., and A. Buchwald. 2006. “The effect of activator concentration on reaction degree and structure formation of alkali-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag.” J. Mater. Sci. 41 (19): 6488–6491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0755-7.
Ingalkar, R. S., and S. M. Harle. 2017. “Replacement of natural sand by crushed sand in the concrete.” Landscape Archit. Reg. Plann. 2 (1): 13–22. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.larp.20170201.12.
Jang, J., A. J. Puppala, S. Chakraborty, N. Biswas, O. Huang, and M. Radovic. 2021. “Eco-Friendly stabilization of sulfate-rich expansive soils using geopolymers for transportation infrastructure.” In Proc., Tran-SET 2021, 223–231. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Kennedy, T. W., R. Smith, R. J. Holmgreen Jr., and M. Tahmoressi. 1987. “An evaluation of lime and cement stabilization.” Transp. Res. Board 1119 (1): 11–25.
Khan, M. A., N. Biswas, A. Banerjee, and A. J. Puppala. 2020. “Field performance of geocell reinforced recycled asphalt pavement base layer.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2674 (3): 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198120908861.
Kukko, H. 2000. “Stabilization of clay with inorganic by-products.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 12 (4): 307–309. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2000)12:4(307).
Kumar, A., and D. Gupta. 2016. “Behavior of cement-stabilized fiber-reinforced pond ash, rice husk ash–soil mixtures.” Geotext. Geomembr. 44 (3): 466–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2015.07.010.
Kumar, A., B. S. Walia, and A. Bajaj. 2007. “Influence of fly ash, lime, and polyester fibers on compaction and strength properties of expansive soil.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 19 (3): 242–248. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19:3(242).
Lamb, M. J. 2005. Design guide for applications of sandstone quarry sand in South Wales. Berks, UK: TRL.
Li, W., Y. Yi, and A. J. Puppala. 2019. “Utilization of carbide slag-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag to treat gypseous soil.” Soils Found. 59 (5): 1496–1507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2019.06.002.
Little, D., E. Males, J. Prusinski, and B. Stewart. 2000. “Cementitious stabilization.” In Transportation in the millennium. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Little, D. N. 1996. Evaluation of resilient and strength properties of lime-stabilized soils for the Denver, Colorado area. Fort Worth, TX: Chemical Lime Company.
Little, D. N. 1999. Evaluation of structural properties of lime stabilized soils and aggregates—Volume 1: Summary of findings. Arlington, VA: National Lime Association.
Little, D. N. 2000. Evaluation of structural properties of lime stabilized soils and aggregates Volume 3: Mixture design and testing procedure for lime stabilized soils. Arlington, VA: National Lime Association.
Little, D. N., and S. Nair. 2009. Recommended practice for stabilization of sulfate-rich subgrade soils. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
McCallister, L. D., and T. M. Petry. 1992. “Leach tests on lime-treated clays.” Geotech. Test. J. 15 (2): 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10232J.
Misra, A. 1998. “Stabilization characteristics of clays using class c fly ash.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1611 (1): 46–54. https://doi.org/10.3141/1611-06.
Mitchell, J. K., and K. Soga. 2005. Fundamentals of soil behavior. New York: Wiley.
National Lime Association. 2004. Lime-treated soil construction manual: Lime stabilization and lime modification. Arlington, VA: National Lime Association.
Peethamparan, S., J. Olek, and S. Diamond. 2008. “Physicochemical behavior of cement kiln dust–treated kaolinite clay.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2059 (1): 80–88. https://doi.org/10.3141/2059-09.
Puppala, A., L. Mohammad, and A. Allen. 1996. “Engineering behavior of lime-treated Louisiana subgrade soil.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1546 (1): 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198196154600103.
Puppala, A. J. 2021. “Performance evaluation of infrastructure on problematic expansive soils: Characterization challenges, innovative stabilization designs, and monitoring methods.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 147 (8): 04021053. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002518.
Puppala, A. J., and A. Pedarla. 2017. “Innovative ground improvement techniques for expansive soils.” Innovative Infrastruct. Solutions 2 (1): 24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-017-0079-2.
Puppala, A. J., A. Pedarla, and A. Gaily. 2016. Implementation: Mitigation of high sulfate soils in Texas: Development of design and construction guidelines, 1–39. Austin, TX: Texas DOT.
Puppala, A. J., S. Saride, and R. Williammee. 2012. “Sustainable reuse of limestone quarry fines and RAP in pavement base/Subbase layers.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 24 (4): 418–429. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000404.
Sivapullaiah, P. V., and A. A. B. Moghal. 2011. “Role of gypsum in the strength development of fly ashes with lime.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 23 (2): 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000158.
Sobolev, K., I. Flores, L. M. Torres-Martinez, P. L. Valdez, E. Zarazua, and E. L. Cuellar. 2009. “Engineering of SiO2 nanoparticles for optimal performance in nano cement-based materials.” In Nanotechnology in construction 3, 139–148. Berlin: Springer.
Stefanidou, M., and I. Papayianni. 2012. “Influence of nano- on the Portland cement pastes.” Composites, Part B 43 (6): 2706–2710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2011.12.015.
Taha, M. R., and O. M. E. Taha. 2012. “Influence of nanomaterial on the expansive and shrinkage soil behavior.” J. Nanopart. Res. 14 (10): 1190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-012-1190-0.
Texas DOT. 1999. Test procedure for determining the bar linear shrinkage of soils. Austin, TX: Texas DOT.
Texas DOT. 2005. Test procedure for determining sulfate content in soils—Colorimetric method. Austin, TX: Texas DOT.
Townsend, F. C., and R. T. Donaghe. 1976. Investigation of accelerated curing of soil-lime and lime-fly ash-aggregate mixtures. Vicksburg, MS: Soils and Pavements Laboratory (US).
Wild, S., J. M. Kinuthia, G. I. Jones, and D. D. Higgins. 1999. “Suppression of swelling associated with ettringite formation in lime stabilized sulphate bearing clay soils by partial substitution of lime with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS).” Eng. Geol. 51 (4): 257–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(98)00069-6.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 149 • Issue 7 • July 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Apr 25, 2022
Accepted: Feb 8, 2023
Published online: Apr 24, 2023
Published in print: Jul 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Sep 24, 2023
ASCE Technical Topics:
- [Inorganic compounds]
- Chemical properties
- Chemicals
- Chemistry
- Environmental engineering
- Geomechanics
- Geotechnical engineering
- Hydration
- Laminating
- Lime
- Material mechanics
- Materials engineering
- Materials processing
- Minerals
- Nanomechanics
- Organic compounds
- Pollution
- Silica
- Soil dynamics
- Soil mechanics
- Soil pollution
- Soil properties
- Soil stabilization
- Soil treatment
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Nripojyoti Biswas, Anand J. Puppala, Krishneswar Ramineni, Durability and Permanency Studies in Sulfate-Laden Soils Treated with Nano- and Crystalline Silica-Based Admixtures, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-16456, 35, 12, (2023).