Macromechanism Approach for Vulnerability Assessment of Buildings on Shallow Foundations in Liquefied Soils
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 149, Issue 3
Abstract
The damage caused by seismic shaking and liquefaction-induced permanent ground deformation has conventionally been assessed as two separate problems often by different engineers. However, the two problems are inherently linked, since ground shaking causes liquefaction, and liquefaction-induced soil softening affects ground shaking. Modelling both problems within a single numerical model is complex for both the engineer and the software, and most finite element software only have the capabilities to address one of them. To improve the estimates of the seismic performance of buildings on liquefiable soil, a new sub-structuring approach is proposed called the macro-mechanism approach. This approach allows the soil-liquefaction-foundation-structure interaction to be considered in a series of sub-models accounting for the major nonlinear mechanisms of the system at a macro level. The proposed approach was implemented in the open-source finite element software OpenSees and then applied to a case study of a building where significant liquefaction- and shaking-induced damage was observed after the 1999 Mw 7.4 Kocaeli Earthquake. The case study building was also simulated using two different commercial software programs, the finite difference software FLAC, and the finite element software PLAXIS, by two different research teams. A comparison between the results from the macro-mechanism approach compared to full numerical models shows that the macro-mechanism approach can capture the extent of the foundation deformation and provide more realistic estimates of the building damage than full approaches since the FLAC and PLAXIS models consider elastic elements for the building.
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Data Availability Statement
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Some or all data, models, or code generated or used during the study are available in a repository or online in accordance with funder data retention policies. The code for calculating the cyclic resistance ratio and equivalent liquefaction resistance curve according to Boulanger and Idriss (2014) can be found in the Liquepy package version 0.6.24 at: https://github.com/eng-tools/Liquepy/blob/master/Liquepy/trigger/boulanger_and_idriss_2014.py.
The code for performance liquefaction triggering according to the strain energy method from Millen et al. (2020) can be found at: https://github.com/eng-tools/Liquepy/blob/master/Liquepy/trigger/nses.py. The code for performing the Equivalent Linear Stockwell Analysis can be found at: https://github.com/eng-tools/Liquepy/blob/master/Liquepy/sra/elsa.py. The code for calculating shear-induced foundation settlement according to Bray and Macedo (2017) can be found at: https://github.com/eng-tools/Liquepy/blob/master/Liquepy/settlement/methods.py. The code for calculating volumetric based settlement according to (Zhang et al. 2004) can be found here: https://github.com/eng-tools/Liquepy/blob/master/Liquepy/trigger/volumetric_strain.py. Damage patterns and photos of the PEC building can be found at https://nisee.berkeley.edu/elibrary/
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Some or all data, models, or code used during the study were provided by a third party. Data on the building and the MASW test was provided by Sakarya Municipality and additional information was provided by Adapazari Municipality. Direct request for these materials may be made to the provider as indicated in the Acknowledgments.
Acknowledgments
This paper was produced as part of the LIQUEFACT project (“Assessment and mitigation of liquefaction potential across Europe: a holistic approach to protect structures/infrastructures for improved resilience to earthquake-induced liquefaction disasters”), which has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement No. GAP-700748. This work was financially supported by: Base Funding—UIDB/04708/2020 and Programmatic Funding—UIDP/04708/2020 of the CONSTRUCT—Instituto de I&D em Estruturas e Construções—funded by national funds through the FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC). The third author acknowledges the support of FCT through the Grant SFRH/BD/143817/2019. The fifth author also acknowledges the support of FCT through the grant CEECIND/04583/2017. The authors would also like to acknowledge the Adapazari and Sakarya Municipalities for providing access and information related to the site.
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Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 149 • Issue 3 • March 2023
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Received: Mar 14, 2022
Accepted: Sep 28, 2022
Published online: Jan 10, 2023
Published in print: Mar 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Jun 10, 2023
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