Experimental Study on the Mechanical Behavior of Frozen Soil Reinforced with Disposable Face Masks
Publication: Journal of Cold Regions Engineering
Volume 38, Issue 4
Abstract
A vast amount of waste disposable face masks (FM) has threatened the ecosystem since COVID-19 became a pandemic. Given the urgency of the situation, this study innovatively assessed the potential utilization of the waste FM fibers to reinforce the subgrade in the permafrost regions. The effect of FM contents (0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%) and length–width (LW) ratios (1, 2, and 3) of the frozen silty clay specimens (−10°C) with different initial moisture contents (w = 15%, 20%, and 25%) on the mechanical behavior, including the peak deviatoric stress (q), the increment of peak deviatoric stress (λ), and the initial elastic modulus (E0), was analyzed. The pore structure change mechanism under the influence of FM and w was further revealed via nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The results indicated that the incorporation of FM improved the soil strength at a certain w, while the FM content and LW ratio were found to have different effects on the q values. The most effective reinforcement can be identified at w = 20%, according to the relatively large λ values (29.2%–79.1%). Moreover, the E0 values of specimens with higher initial moisture content and FM content were smaller, which can be explained by the cracks generated due to the water-ice phase change and uneven distribution of FM. NMR results revealed that the FM had less effect on the pore-water relaxation characteristics, and the change in soil structure was more remarkable in the frozen specimens with higher w. This study pointed out that the tension of FM and its bonding soil particles played the leading role in soil stress–strain behavior.
Practical Applications
The results of this study recommend that waste face masks (FM) be added to the soil in the subgrade to improve its strength in permafrost regions. The mechanical properties (including the peak deviatoric stress and initial elastic modulus) of soils reinforced by various FM contents and different FM sizes were determined via experiments. The reinforcing mechanism is discussed by observing the surface of frozen soils and detecting the change in pore structure before and after freeze–thaw to explain the complex mechanical behavior of reinforced soils. The moisture content of soils is a significant factor influencing the reinforcement effect. According to the test results, different reinforcement parameters, for example, the content of additive FM and the FM size, should be selected in the specimens with different moisture contents for the best reinforcement effect. This paper provides novel and valuable guidance for waste FM utilization and subgrade strengthening in permafrost areas.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
This research was financially supported by the Natural Science Research of the Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions of China (Grant No. 23KJB560001).
References
Ahmadi, S., H. Ghasemzadeh, and F. Changizi. 2021. “Effects of a low-carbon emission additive on mechanical properties of fine-grained soil under freeze-thaw cycles.” J. Cleaner Prod. 304: 127157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127157.
Chen, Y. Q., Z. Dou, Z. F. Zhou, and J. G. Wang. 2023. “Volatilization behavior of diesel oil-water-glass bead system exposed to freeze-thaw cycles.” Water Res. 244: 120433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2023.120433.
Chen, Y. Q., Z. F. Zhou, J. G. Wang, Y. Zhao, and Z. Dou. 2021. “Quantification and division of unfrozen water content during the freezing process and the influence of soil properties by low-field nuclear magnetic resonance.” J. Hydrol. 602: 126719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126719.
Correia, A. A. S., P. J. V. Oliveira, and D. G. Custódio. 2015. “Effect of polypropylene fibres on the compressive and tensile strength of a soft soil, artificially stabilised with binders.” Geotext. Geomembr. 43: 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2014.11. 008.
Du, C. X., and Q. Yang. 2022. “Freeze-thaw behavior of calcium carbide residue-plant ash stabilized marine soft clay.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 193: 103432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2021.103432.
Han, C., Y. He, J. Tian, J. Zhang, J. Li, and S. Wang. 2021. “Shear strength of polypropylene fiber reinforced clay.” Road Mater. Pavement Des. 22 (12): 2783–2800. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2020.1798807.
Huang, K., Q. Y. Ma, G. J. Cai, D. D. Ma, Z. M. Yao, and H. P. Zhang. 2023. “Influence of intermediate principal stress ratio on strength and deformation characteristics of frozen sandy soil under different moisture contents.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 213: 103909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2023.103909.
Jiang, N. S., H. W. Li, Y. Liu, H. Li, and D. Y. Wen. 2023. “Pore microstructure and mechanical behaviour of frozen soils subjected to variable temperature.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 206: 103740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2022.103740.
Kong, L. M., Y. S. Wang, W. J. Sun, and J. L. Qi. 2020. “Influence of plasticity on unfrozen water content of frozen soils as determined by nuclear magnetic resonance.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 172: 102993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2020.102993.
Liu, J. P., H. Xu, Y. Tao, and Q. F. Lyu. 2024. “Effects of clay content and subfreezing temperature on the freeze–thaw deformation properties of clayey soils.” Catena 239: 107916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2024.107916.
Liu, X. Q., J. K. Liu, Y. H. Tian, D. Chang, and T. F. Hu. 2019. “Influence of the freeze-thaw effect on the Duncan-Chang model parameter for lean clay.” Transp. Geotech. 21: 100273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2019.100273.
Lu, Y., Y. G. Zhang, S. H. Liu, W. L. Guo, and F. Xu. 2022. “Mechanical behaviour and permeability of expansive soils mixed with scrap tire rubbers subjected to freeze-thaw cycles.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 199: 103580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions. 2022.103580.
Ma, D. D., W. P. Zhang, X. P. Wang, R. R. Zhang, Z. W. Zhou, Y. Yang, and Y. H. Shi. 2023. “Effects of curing temperature on mechanical properties and pore size distribution of cement clay modified by metakaolin and basalt fiber.” J. Build. Eng. 68: 106232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106232.
Ma, F. L., E. L. Liu, B. T. Song, P. Wang, D. Wang, and J. Kang. 2022. “A poromechanics-based constitutive model for warm frozen soil.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 199: 103555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2022.103555.
Oliveira, A. M., A. L. P. Silva, A. M. V. M. Soares, D. Barceló, A. C. Duarte, and T. Rocha-Santos. 2023. “Current knowledge on the presence, biodegradation, and toxicity of discarded face masks in the environment.” J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 11: 109308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.109308.
Prata, J. C., A. L. P. Silva, T. R. Walker, A. C. Duarte, and T. Rocha-Santos. 2020. “COVID-19 pandemic repercussions on the use and management of plastics.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 54: 7760–7765. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c02178.
Prowse, T. D., C. Furgal, R. Choulnard, H. Melling, D. Milburn, and S. L. Smith. 2009. “Implications of climate change for economic development in northern Canada: Energy, resource, and transportation sectors.” Ambio 38: 272–281. https://doi.org/ 10.1579/0044-7447-38.5.272.
Rajabi, A. M., S. M. S. Ghorashi, and M. Mahdavi. 2023. “Effect of freezing soil temperatures on strength parameters of clayey sand soils stabilized by poly propylene and poly vinyl alcohol fibers.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 208: 103797. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.coldregions.2023.103797.
Rehman, Z. U., and U. Khalid. 2021. “Reuse of COVID-19 face mask for the amelioration of mechanical properties of fat clay: A novel solution to an emerging waste problem.” Sci. Total Environ. 794: 148746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148746.
Roshan, K., A. J. Choobbasti, S. S. Kutanaei, and A. Fakhrabadi. 2022. “The effect of adding polypropylene fibers on the freeze-thaw cycle durability of lignosulfonate stabilised clayey sand.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 193: 103418. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.coldregions.2021.103418.
Saberian, M., J. Li, S. Kilmartin-Lynch, and M. Boroujeni. 2021. “Repurposing of COVID-19 single-use face masks for pavements base/subbase.” Sci. Total Environ. 769: 145527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145527.
Shi, X., P. Yang, L. Li, X. Y. Geng, X. Liu, and J. L. Zhao. 2024. “Strength and microscopic pore structure characterization of cement-fly ash stabilized organic soil under freeze-thaw cycles.” Constr. Build. Mater. 420 (4): 135635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135635.
Sladen, W. E., S. A. Wolfe, and P. D. Morse. 2020. “Evaluation of threshold freezing conditions for winter road construction over discontinuous permafrost peatlands, subarctic Canada.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 170: 102930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2019.102930.
Sun, Z. Z., S. J. Zhang, Y. P. Wang, R. Q. Bai, and S. Y. Li. 2022. “Mechanical behavior and microstructural evolution of frozen soils under the combination of confining pressure and water content.” Eng. Geol. 308: 106819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2022.106819.
Tabakouei, A. R., S. S. Narani, M. Abbaspour, E. Aflaki, and S. Siddiqua. 2022. “Coupled specimen and fiber dimensions influence measurement on the properties of fiber-reinforced soil.” Measurement 188: 110556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2021.110556.
Tang, C. S., C. Zhu, Q. Cheng, H. Zeng, J. J. Xu, B. G. Tian, and B. Shi. 2021. “Desiccation cracking of soils: A review of investigation approaches, underlying mechanisms, and influencing factors.” Earth Sci. Rev. 216: 103586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103586.
Vakili, A. H., M. Salimi, Y. Lu, M. Shamsi, and Z. Nazari. 2022. “Strength and post-freeze-thaw behavior of a marl soil modified by lignosulfonate and polypropylene fiber: An environmentally friendly approach.” Constr. Build. Mater. 332: 127364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127364.
Wang, B. X., X. T. Xu, X. S. Wang, Q. Gu, and T. H. Chen. 2023a. “Mechanical behavior and strength criterion of frozen silty clay under complex stress paths.” Geoderma 435: 116506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116506.
Wang, D., E. L. Liu, C. S. Yang, P. Wang, and B. T. Song. 2023b. “Micromechanics-based binary-medium constitutive model for frozen soil considering the influence of coarse-grained contents and freeze-thaw cycles.” Acta Geotech. 18: 3977–3996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-023-01831-6.
Wang, H., Y. K. Wu, M. Wang, and X. Li. 2022a. “Influence of fines content and degree of saturation on the freezing deformation characteristics of unsaturated soils.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 201: 103610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2022.103610.
Wang, J. H., F. Zhang, Z. H. Yang, and P. Yang. 2022b. “Experimental investigation on the mechanical properties of thawed deep permafrost from the Kuparuk River Delta of the North Slope of Alaska.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 195: 103482. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.coldregions.2022.103482.
Wang, L. M., S. X. Li, I. M. Ahmad, G. Y. Zhang, Y. F. Sun, Y. Wang, C. N. Sun, C. Jiang, P. Cui, and D. M. Li. 2023c. “Global face mask pollution: Threats to the environment and wildlife, and potential solutions.” Sci. Total Environ. 887: 164055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164055.
Wu, G., G. Y. Li, H. Bing, D. Chen, Y. P. Cao, L. Y. Tang, and H. L. Jia. 2023. “Effects of confining pressure and temperature on strength and deformation behavior of frozen saline silty clay.” Res. Cold Arid Reg. 15: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcar.2023.04.003.
Xu, W. Q., Z. Y. Yin, H. L. Wang, and X. Wang. 2022. “Experimental study on the monotonic mechanical behavior of completely decomposed granite soil reinforced by disposable face-mask chips.” J. Cleaner Prod. 352: 131528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131528.
Xu, X. T., B. X. Wang, C. X. Fan, and W. D. Zhang. 2020. “Strength and deformation characteristics of silty clay under frozen and unfrozen states.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 172: 102982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2019.102982.
Yang, Z. H., B. Still, and X. X. Ge. 2015. “Mechanical properties of seasonally frozen and permafrost soils at high strain rate.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 113: 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2015.02.008.
Yang, Z. N., Z. J. Cheng, X. Z. Ling, X. Liu, R. C. Wang, Z. X. Sun, and W. Shi. 2023. “An updated binary medium constitutive model of frozen rubber reinforced expansive soil under confining pressure.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 210: 103824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2023.103824.
Yin, P. B., F. Q. Shen, Z. H. Yang, W. Wen, and X. W. Tang. 2023. “Dynamic characteristics of polyurethane-bonded rubber particle-sand mixture subject to freeze-thaw cycling.” J. Cold Reg. Eng. 37 (3): 04023014. https://doi.org/10.1061/JCRGEI.CRENG-703.
Zambrano-Monserrate, M. A., M. A. Ruano, and L. Sanchez-Alcalde. 2020. “Indirect effects of COVID-19 on the environment.” Sci. Total Environ. 728: 138813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138813.
Zand, A. D., and A. V. Heir. 2020. “Emerging challenges in urban waste management in Tehran, Iran during the COVID-19 pandemic.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 162: 105051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105051.
Zand, A. D., A. V. Heir, and H. Khodaei. 2022. “A survey of knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Tehran residents regarding solid waste management in the COVID-19 era.” J. Hazard. Mater. Adv. 8: 100203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2022.100203.
Zhang, G., E. L. Liu, S. J. Chen, and B. T. Song. 2019. “Micromechanical analysis of frozen silty clay-sand mixtures with different sand contents by triaxial compression testing combined with real-time CT scanning.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 168: 102872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2019.102872.
Zhang, J. Q., X. Wang, Z. Y. Yin, and N. Y. Yang. 2022. “Static and dynamic behaviors of granular soil reinforced by disposable face-mask chips.” J. Cleaner Prod. 331: 129838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129838.
Zhao, G. T., W. L. Zou, Z. Han, D. X. Wang, and X. Q. Wang. 2021. “Evolution of soil-water and shrinkage characteristics of an expansive clay during freeze-thaw and drying-wetting cycles.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 186: 103275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2021.103275.
Zhao, G. W., T. Wu, G. Z. Ren, Z. Zhu, Y. Gao, M. Shi, S. J. Ding, and H. H. Fan. 2023a. “Reusing waste coal gangue to improve the dispersivity and mechanical properties of dispersive soil.” J. Cleaner Prod. 404: 136993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136993.
Zhao, Y. H., M. Y. Zhang, and J. Gao. 2023b. “Research progress of constitutive models of frozen soils: A review.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 206: 103720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2022.103720.
Zhong, H., Z. Zhu, J. Lin, C. F. Cheung, V. L. Lu, F. Yan, C. Y. Chan, and G. Li. 2020. “Reusable and recyclable graphene masks with outstanding superhydrophobic and photothermal performances.” ACS Nano 14 (5): 6213–6221. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c02250.
Zhou, X. P., C. Q. Li, and L. S. Zhou. 2020. “The effect of microstructural evolution on the permeability of sandstone under freeze-thaw cycles.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 177: 103119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2020.103119.
Zhou, Z. W., W. Ma, S. J. Zhang, Y. H. Mu, and G. Y. Li. 2018. “Effect of freeze-thaw cycles in mechanical behaviors of frozen loess.” Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 146: 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.11.011.
Zhu, J. S., M. Saberian, S. T. A. M. Perera, R. Roychand, J. Li, and G. Wang. 2022. “Reusing COVID-19 disposable nitrile gloves to improve the mechanical properties of expansive clay subgrade: An innovative medical waste solution.” J. Cleaner Prod. 375: 134086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134086.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Cold Regions Engineering
Volume 38 • Issue 4 • December 2024
Copyright
© 2024 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jan 31, 2024
Accepted: Jun 25, 2024
Published online: Sep 26, 2024
Published in print: Dec 1, 2024
Discussion open until: Feb 26, 2025
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.