Flexible DIC System for Wind Tunnel Testing of Lightweight Structures
Publication: Journal of Aerospace Engineering
Volume 36, Issue 6
Abstract
We propose an adjustable digital image correlation (DIC) system for the wind tunnel testing of small and large-scale aerospace and civil structures. A novel mounting rig with azimuth and pitch rotation fixtures was designed and developed for the DIC setup that can be installed from outside of the wind tunnel test section. The independent mounting rig makes the DIC system adjustable as per the shape and size of the test structure, which can reduce the installation and calibration efforts in wind tunnel testing. Telecentric lenses optimize the far-field optics of the DIC system. It allows the user to implement a rigorous calibration procedure to study magnification effects. We calibrated the DIC system at various fields of view and depths of field to ensure its suitability for wind tunnel experiments in which accuracy is a prime concern. The DIC measurements can be verified with the Euler transformation algorithm with a suitable combination of azimuth, pitch, and camera optical parameters. Case studies included a large-scale parachute model and a bioinspired flexible flapping wing to ensure the applicability of proposed system for both large- and small-scale structures. The inflated parachute diameter and the wing deformation fields were comparable to those predicted by the Euler transformation relationship. The DIC system can be coupled and synchronized with other measurement systems such as sting balances and particle image velocimetry for the real-time study of structural deformation, aerodynamic forces, and flow characteristics in the vicinity of structures.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their sincere thanks to the National Wind Tunnel Facility (NWTF) IIT Kanpur for providing the test facility, and to the Department of Aerospace Engineering for necessary equipment and facilities. The authors gratefully acknowledge Lavendra Singh at the Advanced Materials and Structures Lab for his valuable assistance and support during the wind tunnel experiments. Financial assistance from Ministry of Human Resource and Development (MHRD), New Delhi is highly appreciated.
References
Abas, M. F. B., A. S. B. M. Rafie, H. B. Yusoff, and K. A. B. Ahmad. 2016. “Flapping wing micro-aerial-vehicle: Kinematics, membranes, and flapping mechanisms of ornithopter and insect flight.” Chin. J. Aeronaut. 29 (5): 1159–1177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2016.08.003.
Chen, F., X. Chen, X. Xie, X. Feng, and L. Yang. 2013. “Full-field 3D measurement using multi-camera digital image correlation system.” Opt. Lasers Eng. 51 (9): 1044–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2013.03.001.
Cheng, X., and S. Lan. 2015. “Effects of chordwise flexibility on the aerodynamic performance of a 3D flapping wing.” J. Bionic Eng. 12 (3): 432–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1672-6529(14)60134-7.
Deng, S., M. Percin, B. van Oudheusden, B. Remes, and H. Bijl. 2014. “Experimental investigation on the aerodynamics of a bio-inspired flexible flapping wing micro air vehicle.” Int. J. Micro Air Veh. 6 (2): 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1260/1756-8293.6.2.105.
Dizaji, M., M. Alipour, and D. Harris. 2021. “Subsurface damage detection and structural health monitoring using digital image correlation and topology optimization.” Eng. Struct. 230 (Mar): 111712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111712.
Ferreira, J. P., and J. H. Bell. 2020. “Deep learning image analysis for angular measurements in wind tunnels.” In Proc., AIAA Scitech Forum. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
Freeland, R. E., and G. Bilyeu. 1993. “In-step inflatable antenna experiment.” Acta Astronaut. 30 (Aug): 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0094-5765(93)90098-H.
Giovannetti, L., J. Banks, S. Turnock, and S. Boyd. 2017. “Uncertainty assessment of coupled digital image correlation and particle image velocimetry for fluid-structure interaction wind tunnel experiments.” J. Fluids Struct. 68 (Feb): 125–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2016.09.002.
Ha, N. S., T. Jin, and N. S. Goo. 2013. “Modal analysis of an artificial wing mimicking an Allomyrina dichotoma beetle’s hind wing for flapping-wing micro air vehicles by noncontact measurement techniques.” Opt. Lasers Eng. 51 (5): 560–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2012.12.012.
Ha, N. S., Q. V. Nguyen, N. S. Goo, and H. C. Park. 2012. “Static and dynamic characteristics of an artificial wing mimicking an Allomyrina dichotoma beetle’s hind wing for flapping-wing micro air vehicles.” Exp. Mech. 52 (9): 1535–1549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11340-012-9611-7.
Ha, N. S., H. M. Vang, and N. S. Goo. 2015. “Modal analysis using digital image correlation technique: An application to artificial wing mimicking beetle’s hind wing.” Exp. Mech. 55 (5): 989–998. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11340-015-9987-2.
Hu, H., A. G. Kumar, G. Abate, and R. Albertani. 2010. “An experimental investigation on the aerodynamic performances of flexible membrane wings in flapping flight.” Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 14 (8): 575–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2010.05.003.
Hu, Z., H. Xie, J. Lu, H. Wang, and J. Zhu. 2011. “Error evaluation technique for three-dimensional digital image correlation.” Appl. Opt. 50 (Feb): 6239–6247. https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.50.006239.
Jenkins, C. H. M., and P. Zarchan. 2001. “Gossamer spacecraft: Membrane and inflatable structures technology for space applications.” In Progress in astronautics and aeronautics, 191. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. https://doi.org/10.2514/4.866616.
Kang, C. K., and W. Shyy. 2013. “Scaling law and enhancement of lift generation of an insect-size hovering flexible wing.” J. R. Soc. Interface 10 (85): 20130361. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2013.0361.
Khare, V., and S. Kamle. 2022. “Biomimicking and evaluation of dragonfly wing morphology with polypropylene nanocomposites.” Acta Mech. Sin. 38 (11): 121431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10409-022-21431-2.
Khare, V., D. Kumar, and S. Kamle. 2020. “Structural damage assessment of MAV flapping wings using dic-wavelet technique.” In Vol. 11380 of Nondestructive characterization and monitoring of advanced materials, aerospace, civil infrastructure, and transportation. Bellingham, WA: International Society for Optics and Photonics.
Kim, D.-K., J.-H. Han, and K.-J. Kwon. 2009. “Wind tunnel tests for a flapping wing model with a changeable camber using macro-fiber composite actuators.” Smart Mater. Struct. 18 (2): 024008. https://doi.org/10.1088/0964-1726/18/2/024008.
Koley, S. S. 2015. “Theoretical and experimental investigation of a heaving two dimensional flexible wing.” Master’s thesis, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur.
Kweon, J., and H. Choi. 2010. “Sectional lift coefficient of a flapping wing in hovering motion.” Phys. Fluids 22 (Aug): 071703. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3471593.
Le, T. Q., T. V. Truong, S. H. Park, T. Q. Truong, J. H. Ko, H. C. Park, and D. Byun. 2013. “Improvement of the aerodynamic performance by wing flexibility and elytra–hind wing interaction of a beetle during forward flight.” J. R. Soc. Interface 10 (85): 20130312. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2013.0312.
Litteken, D. A. 2019. “Inflatable technology: Using flexible materials to make large structures.” In Vol. 10966 of Proc., Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (EAPAD) XXI. Bellingham, WA: International Society for Optics and Photonics.
Liu, T., K. Kuykendoll, R. Rhew, and S. Jones. 2006. “Avian wing geometry and kinematics.” AIAA J. 44 (5): 954–963. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.16224.
Luo, P., Y. Chao, M. Sutton, and W. Peters III. 1993. “Accurate measurement of three-dimensional deformations in deformable and rigid bodies using computer vision.” Exp. Mech. 33 (2): 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02322488.
Mazaheri, K., and A. Ebrahimi. 2010. “Experimental investigation of the effect of chordwise flexibility on the aerodynamics of flapping wings in hovering flight.” J. Fluids Struct. 26 (4): 544–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2010.03.004.
Mokhtari, A., and A. Benallegue. 2004. “Dynamic feedback controller of Euler angles and wind parameters estimation for a quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicle.” In Proc., IEEE Conf. on Robotics and Automation. New York: IEEE.
Nakata, T., and H. Liu. 2011. “Aerodynamic performance of a hovering hawkmoth with flexible wings: A computational approach.” Proc. R. Soc. B 279 (1729): 722–731. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1023.
Pan, B., H. M. Xie, Z. Y. Wang, K. M. Qian, and Z. Y. Wang. 2008. “Study of subset size selection in digital image correlation for speckle patterns.” Opt. Express 16 (10): 7037–7048. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.16.007037.
Peters, W. H., and W. F. Rason. 1982. “Digital imaging techniques in experimental stress analysis.” Opt. Eng. 21 (3): 427–431. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.7972925.
Ruyten, W. 2002. “More photogrammetry for wind-tunnel testing.” AIAA J. 40 (7): 1277–1283. https://doi.org/10.2514/2.1814.
Shao, C.-P., Y.-J. Chen, and J.-Z. Lin. 2012. “Wind induced deformation and vibration of a Platanus acerifolia leaf.” Acta Mech. Sin. 28 (3): 583–594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10409-012-0074-y.
Shumway, N. M., and S. J. Laurence. 2019. “The impact of deformation on the aerodynamics of flapping dragonfly wings.” In Proc., AIAA Scitech forum. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
Shyy, W., H. Aono, C. K. Kang, and H. Liu. 2013. An introduction to flapping wing aerodynamics. 1st ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Shyy, W., and R. Smith. 1997. “A study of flexible airfoil aerodynamics with application to micro aerial vehicles.” In Proc., AIAA Fluid Dynamics Conf., Snowmass, 28. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
Singh, B., and I. Chopra. 2008. “Insect-based hover-capable flapping wings for micro air vehicles: Experiments and analysis.” AIAA J. 46 (9): 2115–2135. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.28192.
Song, J., H. Luo, and T. L. Hedrick. 2014. “Three-dimensional flow and lift characteristics of a hovering ruby-throated hummingbird.” J. R. Soc. Interface 11 (98): 20140541. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0541.
Sutton, M. A., S. R. McNeill, J. D. Helm, and Y. J. Chao. 2000. “Advances in two-dimensional and three-dimensional computer vision.” In Photomechanics, 323–372. Berlin: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-48800-6_10.
Sutton, M. A., J. J. Orteu, and H. Schreier. 2009. Image correlation for shape, motion and deformation measurements. New York: Springer.
Sutton, M. A., W. J. Wolters, W. H. Peters, W. F. Ranson, and S. R. McNeill. 1983. “Determination of displacements using an improved digital correlation method.” Image Vision Comput. 1 (3): 133–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/0262-8856(83)90064-1.
Sutton, M. A., J. H. Yan, V. Tiwari, H. W. Schreier, and J. J. Orteu. 2008. “The effect of out-of-plane motion on 2D and 3D digital image correlation measurements.” Opt. Lasers Eng. 46 (10): 746–757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2008.05.005.
Turner, D. Z. 2015. “An overview of the gradient-based local dic formulation for motion estimation in dice.” Accessed August 19, 2016. https://dicengine.github.io/dice.
Turner, D. Z. 2018. An overview of the virtual strain gauge formulation in DICe. Albuquerque, NM: Sandia National Laboratories.
Turner, D. Z. 2020. An overview of the stereo correlation and triangulation formulations used in DICE. Albuquerque, NM: Sandia National Laboratories.
Wang, G., L. Huang, L. Wang, F. Zhao, X. Wang, and R. Wan. 2021. “Effects of Euler angles of vertical cambered otter board on hydrodynamics based on response surface methodology and multi-objective genetic algorithm.” J. Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng. 143 (2). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4048154.
Warkentin, J., and J. DeLaurier. 2007. “Experimental aerodynamic study of tandem flapping membrane wings.” J. Aircr. 44 (5): 1653–1661. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.28160.
Windberger, U., J. Wendrinsky, and H. G. Wulz. 2015. Bio-inspired ultra lightweight nanocomposite materials for application to large and gossamer structures in space. Vienna, Austria: Univ. of Natural Resources and Life Sciences.
Wu, P., P. Ifju, and B. Stanford. 2010. “Flapping wing structural deformation and thrust correlation study with flexible membrane wings.” AIAA J. 48 (9): 2111–2122. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.J050310.
Wu, P., B. Stanford, W. Bowman, A. Schwartz, and P. Ifju. 2009. “Digital image correlation techniques for full-field displacement measurements of micro air vehicle flapping wings.” Exp. Tech. 33 (6): 53–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-1567.2008.00450.x.
Wu, P., B. K. Stanford, E. Sällstrom, L. Ukeiley, and P. G. Ifju. 2011. “Structural dynamics and aerodynamics measurements of biologically inspired flexible flapping wings.” Bioinspiration Biomimetics 6 (1): 016009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3182/6/1/016009.
Yamaguchi, I. 1981. “A laser-speckle strain gauge.” J. Phys. E: Sci. Instrum. 14 (11): 1270. https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3735/14/11/012.
Yang, W., B. Song, L. Wang, and L. Chen. 2015. “Dynamic fluid-structure coupling method of flexible flapping wing for MAV.” J. Aerosp. Eng. 28 (6): 04015006. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)AS.1943-5525.0000490.
Yusoff, H., M. Z. Abdullah, M. A. Mujeebu, and K. A. Ahmad. 2015. “Effect of skin flexibility on aerodynamic performance of flexible skin flapping wings for micro air vehicles.” Exp. Tech. 39 (1): 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/ext.12004.
Zhao, L., Q. Huang, X. Deng, and S. Sane. 2009. “Aerodynamic effects of flexibility in flapping wings.” J. R. Soc. Interface 44 (7): 485–497. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2009.0200.
Zhou, L. 2013. “The aerodynamic and structural study of flapping wing vehicles.” Ph.D. thesis, School of Science and Technology, City Univ. London.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Aerospace Engineering
Volume 36 • Issue 6 • November 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 15, 2022
Accepted: May 12, 2023
Published online: Aug 11, 2023
Published in print: Nov 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Jan 11, 2024
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.