Parametric Models for Wind Load Resistances of Wood-Frame Walls
Publication: Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 146, Issue 2
Abstract
The progressive failure analysis of wood-frame structures under wind loads requires the resistances of each of the components (such as roof, walls, and connections) as input. The resistance functions should be able to account for the variability in the design parameters, support, and loading conditions. This study provides parametric models to calculate the in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OP) wind load resistances of wood-frame walls based on finite element analysis (FEA). The finite element model (FEM) of the walls are validated against experiments from published literature, and the IP and OP failure loads of the walls are determined for different length, height, stud spacing, sheathing nail spacing, sheathing thickness, presence of drywall and opening, and different support conditions. Based on a broad set of data generated by finite element calculations, two parametric models are developed to estimate the IP and OP wind load resistances of the walls by considering all of the variable parameters in this study. The parametric models demonstrate very good agreement with the FEM generated data and the available experimental results and will be useful to facilitate progressive wind failure analysis of wood-frame structures.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This work is funded by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) under the “Tornado Risk Maps for Building Design” project (SB1431-12-CQ-0014). Special thanks are given to Dr. Long Phan (NIST) and Dr. March Levitan (NIST) for their inputs and feedback regarding this work. Applied Research Associates (ARA) is acknowledged for providing partial funding for the preparation of this manuscript.
References
ANSYS. 2016. ANSYS mechanical APDL and mechanical applications theory reference, ANSYS release 16.0. Canonsburg, PA: ANSYS.
Atherton, G. H. 1983. “Ultimate strength of particleboard diaphragms.” For. Prod. J. 33 (5): 22–26.
AWC (American Wood Council). 2015. Wood-frame construction manual for one- and two-family dwellings. Leesburg, VA: AWC.
Banik, S. S., L. A. Twisdale, and P. J. Vickery. 2017. “Tornado damage modeling of single family wood frame house.” In Proc., 13th Americas Conf. on Wind Engineering. Red Hook, NY: Curran Associates.
Cheung, C. K., R. Y. Itani, and A. Polensek. 1988. “Characteristics of wood diaphragms: Experimental and parametric studies.” Wood Fiber Sci. 20 (4): 438–456.
Cramer, S. M., O. M. Friday, R. H. White, and G. Sriprutkiat. 2003. “Mechanical properties of gypsum board at elevated temperatures.” In Proc., Fire and Materials 2003 Conf., 33–42. London: Interscience Communications Limited.
Dean, P. K., and H. W. Shenton III. 2005. “Experimental investigation of the effect of vertical load on the capacity of wood shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 131 (7): 1104–1113. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2005)131:7(1104).
Dinehart, D. W., A. S. Blasetti, and H. W. Shenton III. 2008. “Experimental cyclic performance of viscoelastic gypsum connections and shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 134 (1): 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2008)134:1(87).
Dolan, J. D., and R. O. Foschi. 1991. “Structural analysis model for static loads on timber shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 117 (3): 851–861. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1991)117:3(851).
Dolan, J. D., and C. P. Heine. 1997a. Monotonic tests of wood-frame shear walls with various openings and base restraint configurations. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Dolan, J. D., and C. P. Heine. 1997b. Sequential phased displacement tests of wood framed shear walls with corners. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Dolan, J. D., and A. C. Johnson. 1996. Monotonic tests of long shear walls with openings. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Doudak, G. 2005. “Field determination and modeling of load paths in wood light-frame structures.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics, McGill Univ.
Doudak, G., I. Smith, G. McClure, M. Mohammad, and P. Lepper. 2006. “Tests and finite element models of wood light-frame shear walls with openings.” Prog. Struct. Eng. Mat. 8 (4): 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1002/pse.223.
Durham, J., F. Lam, and H. G. Prion. 2001. “Seismic resistance of wood shear walls with large OSB panels.” J. Struct. Eng. 127 (12): 1460–1466. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2001)127:12(1460).
Fischer, D., A. Filiatrault, B. Folz, C.-M. Uang, and F. Seible. 2000. Shake table tests of a two-storey house. San Diego: Dept. of Structural Engineering, Univ. of California.
Folz, B., and A. Filiatrault. 2001. “Cyclic analysis of wood shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 127 (4): 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2001)127:4(433).
Foschi, R. O. 1977. “Analysis of wood diaphragms and trusses. I: Diaphragms.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 4 (3): 345–352. https://doi.org/10.1139/l77-043.
Griffiths, D. R. 1976. Report on racking tests on timber framed wall panels sheathed with “Asfarock” bitumen impregnated insulation board. Guildford, UK: Univ. of Surrey.
Gromala, D. S. 1983. Light-frame wall systems: Performance and predictability. Madison, WI: Forest Products Lab.
Gromala, D. S., and A. Polensek. 1982. “Analysis and design of wall systems under axial and bending loads.” In Wall and floor systems: Design and performance of light-frame structures, 87–100. Madison, WI: Forest Products Research Society.
Hite, M. C. 2002. “Modeling the nonlinear behavior of wood frame shear walls.” MS thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Delaware.
IRC (International Residential Council). 2015. International residential code for one- and two-family dwellings. Country Club Hills, IL: International Code Council.
Itani, R. Y., and C. K. Cheung. 1984. “Nonlinear analysis of sheathed wood diaphragms.” J. Struct. Eng. 110 (9): 2137–2147. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1984)110:9(2137).
Jang, S. S. 2000. “Racking resistance of shear walls with various sheathing materials and openings.” In Vol. 5 of Proc., World Conf. on Timber Engineering, 2-1. Vancouver, BC, Canada: School of Architecture of the Univ. of British Columbia.
Johnston, A. R. 2005. “Response of wood frame shear walls with applied lateral load.” MS thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Delaware.
Kamiya, F., Y. Hirashima, T. Hatayoma, and N. Kanaya. 1981. Effects on racking resistance of bearing wall due to test methods and wall length, 315. Ibaraki, Japan: Bulletin of the Forestry and Forest Products Institute.
Kumar, N., V. Dayal, and P. P. Sarkar. 2012. “Failure of wood-framed low-rise buildings under tornado wind loads.” Eng. Struct. 39 (Jun): 79–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2012.02.011.
Lam, F., H. G. Prion, and M. He. 1997. “Lateral resistance of wood shear walls with large sheathing panels.” J. Struct. Eng. 123 (12): 1666–1673. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1997)123:12(1666).
Leonard, D. 2004. “The structural performance of tall wood-frame walls under axial and transverse loads.” MS thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of British Columbia.
Marshall, T. P. 2002. “Tornado damage survey at Moore, Oklahoma.” Weather Forecasting 17 (3): 582–598. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(2002)017%3C0582:TDSAMO%3E2.0.CO;2.
Martin, K. G., R. Gupta, D. O. Prevatt, P. L. Datin, and J. W. van de Lindt. 2011. “Modeling system effects and structural load paths in a wood-framed structure.” J. Archit. Eng. 17 (4): 134–143. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000045.
Mi, H. 2004. “Behavior of unblocked wood shearwalls.” MS thesis, Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management, Univ. of New Brunswick.
Mi, H., C. Ni, Y. H. Chui, and E. Karacabeyli. 2006. “Racking performance of tall unblocked shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 132 (1): 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2006)132:1(145).
NAHB Research Center. 1999. Perforated shear walls with conventional and innovative base restraint connections. Upper Marlboro, MD: US Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, National Association of Home Builders, NAHB Research Center.
NAHB Research Center. 2001. Wood shear walls with corners. Upper Marlboro, MD: US Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, NAHB Research Center.
NAHB Research Center. 2002. Roof framing connections in conventional residential construction. Upper Marlboro, MD: US Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, NAHB Research Center.
Nguyendinh, H. 2011. “Analytical modeling of wood frame shear walls subjected to vertical load.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Texas A&M Univ.
Pan, F., C. S. Cai, and W. Zhang. 2013. “Refined finite element modeling of a typical low-rise building for damage predictions under hurricane loads.” In The 12th Americas Conf. on Wind Engineering (12ACWE). Red Hook, NY: Curran Associates.
Patton-Mallory, M., R. W. Wolfe, L. A. Soltis, and R. M. Gutkowski. 1985. “Light-frame shear wall length and opening effects.” J. Struct. Eng. 111 (10): 2227–2239. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1985)111:10(2227).
Polensek, A. 1975. Finite element analysis for wood-stud walls under bending and compression loads. Corvallis, OR: Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon State Univ.
Polensek, A. 1976. “Finite element analysis of wood stud walls.” J. Struct. Div. 102 (ST7): 1317–1335.
Polensek, A. 1978. “Properties of components and joints for rational design procedure of wood-stud walls.” Wood Sci. 10 (4): 167–175.
Polensek, A., and G. H. Atherton. 1976. “Compression bending strength and stiffness of walls with utility grade studs.” For. Prod. J. 26 (11): 17–25.
Polensek, A., and D. S. Gromala. 1984. “Probability distributions for wood-frame walls in bending.” J. Struct. Eng. 110 (3): 619–636. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1984)110:3(619).
Prevatt, D. O., D. B. Roueche, J. W. van de Lindt, S. Pei, T. Dao, W. Coulbourne, A. J. Graettinger, R. Gupta, and D. G. Torrent. 2012. “Building damage observations and EF classifications from the Tuscaloosa, AL and Joplin, MO tornadoes.” In Proc., Structures Congress 2012. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Prevatt, D. O., J. W. van de Lindt, A. Graettinger, W. Coulbourne, R. Gupta, S. Pei, S. Hensen, and D. Grau. 2011. Damage study and future direction for structural design following the Tuscaloosa Tornado of 2011, 56. Tuscaloosa, AL: Univ. of Alabama.
Rahmanian, I. 2011. “Thermal and mechanical properties of gypsum boards and their influences on fire resistance of gypsum board based systems.” Ph.D. dissertation, School of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Civil Engineering, Univ. of Manchester.
Roueche, D. B., and D. O. Prevatt. 2013. “Residential damage patterns following the 2011 Tuscaloosa, AL and Joplin, MO tornadoes.” J. Disaster Res. 8 (6): 1061–1067. https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2013.p1061.
Salenikovich, A. J., and J. D. Dolan. 2000. “The racking performance of light-frame shear walls with various tie-down restraints.” In Proc., World Conf. on Timber Engineering. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Dept. of Civil Engineering, Dept. of Wood Science, School of Architecture of the Univ. of British Columbia.
Seaders, P., R. Gupta, and T. H. Miller. 2009. “Monotonic and cyclic load testing of partially and fully anchored wood-frame shear walls.” Wood Fiber Sci. 41 (2): 145–156.
Standohar-Alfano, C. D. 2016. “Damage analysis and mitigation for wood-frame structures subjected to tornado loading.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State Univ.
Sugiyama, H. 1981. “Evaluation of wood-based shear walls with opening.” Wood Ind. 36 (7): 3–8.
Thampi, H. 2010. “Interaction of a translating tornado with low-rise building.” MS thesis, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Iowa State Univ.
Thampi, H., V. Dayal, and P. P. Sarkar. 2011. “Finite element analysis of interaction of tornados with a low-rise timber building.” J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 99 (4): 369–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2011.01.004.
Thurston S. J. 1993. Report on racking resistance of long sheathed timber framed walls with openings. Judgeford, New Zealand: Building Research Association of New Zealand.
Thurston, S. J. 2003. Full-sized house cyclic racking test. Judgeford, New Zealand: Building Research Association of New Zealand.
Thurston, S. J. 2006. Racking tests on rooms and isolated walls to investigate uplift restraint and systems effects. Judgeford, New Zealand: Building Research Association of New Zealand.
Toro, W. M., A. Salenikovich, M. Mohammad, and R. Beauregard. 2007. “Racking and bending tests for prefabricated wall panels.” Maderas. Ciencia y tecnología 9 (1): 3–14.
Twisdale, L. A., S. S. Banik, P. J. Vickery, M. Levitan, and L. Phan. 2016. “A methodology for improving tornado damage-based intensity ratings.” In Proc., 28th Conf. on Severe Local Storms. Boston: American Meteorological Society.
Twisdale, L. A., S. S. Banik, P. J. Vickery, S. Quayyum, M. Levitan, and L. Phan. 2017. “Probabilistic analysis of EF scale windspeeds for tornado hazard analysis.” In 13th Americas Conference on Wind Engineering. Red Hook, NY: Curran Associates.
Uang, C.-M., and K. Gatto. 2003. “Effects of finish materials and dynamic loading on the cyclic response of woodframe shearwalls.” J. Struct. Eng. 120 (10): 1394–1402. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2003)129:10(1394).
van de Lindt, J. W., A. Graettinger, R. Gupta, T. Skaggs, S. Pryor, and K. J. Fridley. 2007. “Performance of wood-frame structures during Hurricane Katrina.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 21 (2): 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3828(2007)21:2(108).
White, M. W., and J. D. Dolan. 1995. “Nonlinear shear-wall analysis.” J. Struct. Eng. 121 (11): 1629–1635. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1995)121:11(1629).
Winkel, M., and I. Smith. 2010. “Structural behavior of wood light-frame wall segments subjected to in-plane and out-of-plane forces.” J. Struct. Eng. 136 (7): 826–836. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000170.
Yasumura, M. 2010. “Racking resistance of panel-sheathed shear walls with opening.” In Proc., 11th World Conf. on Timber Engineering. Rome: Trees and Timber Institute, National Research Council.
Yasumura, M., and H. Sugiyama. 1984. “Shear properties of plywood-sheathed wall panels with opening.” Trans. Archit. Inst. Jpn. 338 (4): 88–98. https://doi.org/10.3130/aijsaxx.338.0_88.
Yeh, B., and T. G. Williamson. 2008. “Combined shear and wind uplift resistance of wood structural panel shearwalls.” In Proc., 41st Int. Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction, Working Commission W18 on Timber Structures (CIB W18). Delft, Netherlands: International Council for Research and Innovation.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 146 • Issue 2 • February 2020
Copyright
©2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: May 31, 2018
Accepted: May 10, 2019
Published online: Nov 23, 2019
Published in print: Feb 1, 2020
Discussion open until: Apr 23, 2020
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.