Abstract
This paper presents a concise state-of-the-art survey on the research work pertaining to the seismic response of reinforced masonry shear walls (RMSW) with a focus on the published research work as of the 1980s on mainly RMSW built using concrete blocks. The paper is organized into two main focus areas: RMSW components (i.e., individual walls) and RMSW systems (i.e., complete buildings). To facilitate readability, the components literature survey is further categorized into five sections. These sections highlight the experimental and, to some extent, the numerical and analytical studies related to the seismic response of RMSW that are either: (1) fully grouted and squat; (2) fully grouted and slender; (3) fully grouted and end-confined; (4) fully/partially grouted and coupled or with openings; and (5) partially grouted. Each of these sections is presented from three perspectives that cover the historical overview, the current state of the art, and future research needs. Similar to the RMSW components focus area, the RMSW systems literature survey is also presented from three perspectives that cover the historical overview, the current state of the art, and future research needs. The paper concludes by briefly summarizing future challenges facing reinforced masonry construction under seismic loads and possible solutions through collaborative and individual research efforts.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The first author is grateful to several individuals who supported his masonry research program for the past twelve years. He is especially thankful for his trainees and the technicians of Applied Dynamics Laboratory (ADL) and his colleagues in the Department of Civil Engineering at McMaster University. The author is also grateful to several organizations that contributed to his masonry research program in many ways including: the Centre for Effective Design of Structures; the Ontario Ministry of Research and Innovation; the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada; the Canada Foundation for Innovation; the Canadian Concrete Masonry Producers Associations; and the Canada Masonry Design Centre.
References
Abdellatef, M. I. (2011). “The development of a simplified modeling technique for the finite element analysis of reinforced masonry shear walls.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
Abrams, D. P. (1986). “Lateral resistance of a two-story block building.” Proc., Advances in Analysis of Structural Masonry, ASCE, Reston, VA, 41–57.
Abrams, D. P. (1988). “Dynamic and static testing of reinforced concrete masonry structures.” Masonry Soc. J., 17(1), 18–22.
Abrams, D. P. (1996). “Effects of scale and loading rate with tests of concrete and masonry structures.” Earthquake Spectra, 12(1), 13–28.
Abrams, D. P., and Paulson, T. J. (1991). “Modeling earthquake response of concrete masonry building structures.” ACI Struct. J., 88(4), 475–485.
Aguilar, V., Sandoval, C., Adam, J. M., Garzón-Roca, J., and Valdebenito, G. (2016). “Prediction of the shear strength of reinforced masonry walls using a large experimental database and artificial neural networks.” Struct. Infrastruct. Eng., 12(12), 1661–1674.
Ahmadi, F. (2012). “Displacement-based seismic design and tools for reinforced masonry shear-wall structures.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX.
Ahmadi, F., Hernández, J., Rodriguez, J. D., and Klingner, R. E. (2014a). “Seismic behavior of reinforced concrete masonry shear walls as governed by flexure.” Masonry Soc. J., 32(1), 31–50.
Ahmadi, F., Hernández, J., Sherman, J., Kapoi, C., Klingner, R. E., and McLean, D. I. (2014b). “Seismic performance of cantilever-reinforced concrete masonry shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 04014051.
Ahmadi, F., and Klingner, R. E. (2015). “Analytical tools for displacement-based seismic design of reinforced masonry shear-wall structures.” Proc., 12th North American Masonry Conf., Masonry Society, Longmont, CO.
Ahmadi, F., Mavros, M., Klingner, R. E., Shing, B., and McLean, D. (2015a). “Displacement-based seismic design for reinforced masonry shear-wall structures. Part 1: Background and trial application.” Earthquake Spectra, 31(2), 969–998.
Ahmadi, F., Mavros, M., Klingner, R. E., Shing, B., and McLean, D. (2015b). “Displacement-based seismic design for reinforced masonry shear-wall structures. Part 2: Validation with shake-table tests.” Earthquake Spectra, 31(2), 999–1019.
AIJ (Architectural Institute of Japan). (1990). “Ultimate strength and deformation capacity of buildings in seismic design.” Minato-ku, Tokyo (in Japanese).
Alogla, S., Ahmadi, F., Hernández, J., Klingner, R. E., and McLean, D. I. (2014). “Evaluation of 2011 MSJC strength-design shear provisions for reinforced masonry shear walls.” Masonry Soc. J., 32(1), 51–67.
Anderson, D., and Priestley, M. (1992). “In plane shear strength of masonry walls.” Proc., 6th Canadian Masonry Symp., Dept. of Civil Eng., Univ. of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, 223–234.
ASCE. (2014). “Seismic evaluation and retrofit of existing buildings.” ASCE/SEI 41-13, Reston, VA.
Ashour, A. (2016). “Wall-diaphragm out-of-plane coupling influence on the seismic response of reinforced masonry buildings.” Ph.D. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Ashour, A., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2016a). “Influence of floor diaphragm-wall coupling on the system-level seismic performance of an asymmetrical reinforced concrete block building.” J. Struct. Eng., 04016071.
Ashour, A., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2016b). “Backbone model for displacement-based seismic design of reinforced masonry shear wall buildings.” Proc., 16th Int. Brick and Block Masonry Conf., Taylor & Francis Group, London.
Ashour, A., El-Dakhakhni, W., and Shedid, M. (2016). “Experimental evaluation of the system-level seismic performance and robustness of an asymmetrical reinforced concrete block building.” J. Struct. Eng., 04016072.
Ashour, A., Shedid, M., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2015). “Slab rigidity effects on reinforced masonry building behavior.” Proc., 12th North American Masonry Conf. (CD-ROM), Masonry Society, Longmont, CO.
Banting, B. R. (2013). “Seismic performance quantification of concrete block masonry structural walls with confined boundary elements and development of the normal strain-adjusted shear strength expression (NSSSE).” Ph.D. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON.
Banting, B. R., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2012). “Force- and displacement-based seismic performance parameters for reinforced masonry structural walls with boundary elements.” J. Struct. Eng., 1477–1491.
Banting, B. R., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2014a). “Normal strain-adjusted shear strength expression for fully grouted reinforced masonry structural walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 04013075.
Banting, B. R., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2014b). “Seismic design parameters for special masonry structural walls detailed with confined boundary elements.” J. Struct. Eng., 04014067.
Banting, B. R., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2014c). “Seismic performance quantification of reinforced masonry structural walls with boundary elements.” J. Struct. Eng., 04014001.
Bathe, K. J. (1999). “ADINA—Automatic dynamic incremental nonlinear analysis system.” ADINA Engineering, Watertown, MA.
Blume, J. A., and Prolux, J. (1968). Shear in grouted brick masonry wall elements, Western States Clay Products Association, Torrance, CA.
Bohl, A., and Adebar, P. (2011). “Plastic hinge lengths in high-rise concrete shear walls.” ACI Struct. J., 108(2), 148–157.
Bolhassani, M. (2015). “Improvement of seismic performance of ordinary reinforced partially grouted concrete masonry shear walls.” Ph.D. thesis, Drexel Univ., Philadelphia.
Bolhassani, M., Hamid, A. A., and Moon, F. L. (2014). “Enhancement of seismic performance of partially grouted reinforced masonry shear walls.” Proc., 10th U.S. National Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, EERI, Oakland, CA, 21–25.
Bolhassani, M., Hamid, A. A., and Moon, F. L. (2016). “Enhancement of lateral in-plane capacity of partially grouted concrete masonry shear walls.” Eng. Struct., 108, 59–76.
Brammer, D. R. (1995). “The lateral force-deflection behaviour of nominally reinforced masonry walls.” M.E. thesis, Univ. of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
Bruce, J., and Lindberg, H. (1981). “Earthquake simulation using contained explosion.” Proc., 2nd ASCE-EMD Specialty Conf. on Dynamic Response of Structures, ASCE, Reston, VA, 111–125.
Brunel, M., et al. (1838). “Experimental brick beam.” Civil Eng. Archit. J., 1, 135.
Brunner, J. D., and Shing, P. B. (1996). “Shear strength of reinforced masonry walls.” Masonry Soc. J., 14(1), 65–77.
Centeno, J. (2015). “Sliding displacements in reinforced masonry walls subjected to in-plane lateral loads.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
Chen, S., Hidalgo, P., Mayes, R., Clough, R., and McNiven, H. (1978). “Cyclic loading tests of masonry single piers, Volume 2–height to width ratio of 1.” Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA, 188.
Clough, R. W., Mayes, R. L., and Gülkan, P. (1979). “Shaking table study of single-story masonry houses: Summary, conclusions, and recommendations.” Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California, Berkeley, California, 106.
Cohen, G. L., Kilngner, R. E., Hayes Jr, J. R., and Sweeney, S. C. (2001). “Seismic response of low-rise masonry buildings with flexible roof diaphragms.”, Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC.
Cohen, G. L., Klingner, R. E., Hayes, J. R., and Sweeney, S. C. (2004). “Seismic evaluation of low-rise reinforced masonry buildings with flexible diaphragms. I: Seismic and quasi-static testing.” Earthquake Spectra, 20(3), 779–801.
Converse, F. J. (1946). “Tests on reinforced concrete masonry.” Proc., Building Standards Monthly, Pacific Coast Building Officials Conf., International Conference of Building Officials, Long beach, CA, 4–13.
Corrêa, M. R. (2012). “The evolution of the design and construction of masonry buildings in Brazil.” Gestão Tecnologia de Projetos, 7(2), 3–11.
Costa, A. (2007). “Experimental testing of lateral capacity of masonry piers. An application to seismic assessment of AAC masonry buildings.” Ph.D. thesis, Università degli Studi di Pavia, Pavia, Italy.
CSA (Canadian Standards Association). (2004). “Design of masonry structures.” CSA S304-04, Mississauga, Canada.
CSA (Canadian Standards Association). (2010). “Design of concrete structures.” CSA A 23.3-10, Mississauga, Canada.
CSA (Canadian Standards Association). (2014). “Design of masonry structures.” CSA S304-14, Mississauga, Canada.
CSI (Computers and Structures, Inc). (2007). “PERFORM 3D V5, nonlinear analysis and performance assessment for 3D structures.” Berkeley, CA.
Cyrier, W. B. (2012). “Performance of concrete masonry shear walls with integral confined concrete boundary elements.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
Davidson, B. J. (1996). “In-plane cyclic loading of nominally reinforced masonry walls with openings.” Proc., New Zealand Concrete Society Conf., Wairakei, New Zealand, 120–129.
Davidson, B. J. (1998). “In-plane cyclic loading of nominally reinforced masonry walls with openings.”, Univ. of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
Davidson, B. J., and Brammer, D. R. (1996). “Cyclic performance of nominally reinforced masonry walls.” Proc., Technical Conf. of NZNSEE, Wellington, New Zealand, 144–151.
Davis, C. L. (2008). “Evaluation of design provisions for in-plane shear in masonry walls.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
DIANA 8.1 [Computer software]. TNO Building and Construction Research, Delft, Netherlands.
Dickie, J. E., and Lissel, S. L. (2011). “In-plane shear test method for reinforced concrete masonry and comparison of test results.” Proc., 9th Australasian Masonry Conf., Queenstown, New Zealand.
Dizhur, D., et al. (2011). “Performance of masonry buildings and churches in the 22 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake.” Bull. New Zealand Soc. Earthquake Eng., 44(4), 279–296.
Drysdale, R., and Hamid, A. (2005). Masonry structures, Canada Masonry Design Centre, Mississauga, ON, Canada.
Drysdale, R. G., Hamid, A. A., and Baker, L. R. (1994). Masonry structures: Behavior and design, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Drysdale, R. G., and Khattab, M. M. (1995). “In-plane behavior of grouted concrete masonry under biaxial tension-compression.” ACI Struct. J., 92(6), 653–664.
Eikanas, I. K. (2003). “Behavior of concrete masonry shear walls with varying aspect ratio and flexural reinforcement.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
El-Dakhakhni, W. W., Banting, B. R., and Miller, S. C. (2013). “Seismic performance parameter quantification of shear-critical reinforced concrete masonry squat walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 957–973.
El-Dakhakhni, W. W., Drysdale, R. G., and Khattab, M. M. (2006). “Multilaminate macromodel for concrete masonry: Expression and verification.” J. Struct. Eng., 1984–1996.
ElGawady, M. A. (2015). “Shear strength equations for partially grouted masonry walls.” Proc., 12th North American Masonry Conf., Masonry Society, Longmont, CO.
Elmapruk, J. H. (2010). “Shear strength of partially grouted squat masonry shear walls.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
Ezzeldin, M. (2017). “System-level seismic performance quantification of reinforced masonry buildings with boundary elements.” Ph.D. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Ezzeldin, M., El-Dakhakhni, W., and Wiebe, L. (2016a). “Experimental assessment of the system-level seismic performance of an asymmetrical reinforced concrete block wall building with boundary elements.” J. Struct. Eng., 04017063.
Ezzeldin, M., El-Dakhakhni, W., and Wiebe, L. (2017a) “Reinforced masonry building seismic response models for ASCE/SEI-41.” J. Struct. Eng., in press.
Ezzeldin, M., Wiebe, L., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2016b). “Seismic collapse risk assessment of reinforced masonry walls with boundary elements using the FEMA P695 methodology.” J. Struct. Eng., 04016108.
Ezzeldin, M., Wiebe, L., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2017b). “System-level seismic risk assessment methodology: Application to reinforced masonry buildings with boundary elements.” J. Struct. Eng., 04017084.
Ezzeldin, M., Wiebe, L., Shedid, M., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2014). “Numerical modelling of reinforced concrete block structural walls under seismic loading.” Proc., 9th Int. Masonry Conf. International Masonry Society, International Masonry Society, Surrey, U.K.
Fattal, S. (1993). “Strength of partially-grouted masonry shear walls under lateral loads.” National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
FEMA. (1997). “NEHRP guidelines for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings.”, Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, CA.
FEMA. (2009). “Quantification of building seismic performance factors.”, Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, CA.
FEMA. (2012). “Seismic performance assessment of buildings.”, Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, CA.
Galambos, T., and Mayes, R. (1978). “Dynamic tests of a reinforced concrete building.” Washington Univ., St. Louis.
Ghanem, G., Essawy, A., and Hamid, A. (1992). “Effect of steel distribution on the behavior of partially reinforced masonry shear walls.” Proc., 6th Canadian Masonry Symp., Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, 356–376.
Ghanem, G., Salama, A., Elmagd, S., and Hamid, A. (1993). “Effect of axial compression on the behavior of partially reinforced masonry shear walls.” Proc., 6th North American Masonry Conf., The Masonry Society, Longmont, CO.
Gibson, L. H. (1906). “Principles of success in concrete block manufacture.” Scientific Am., 61, 25209–25210.
Gülkan, P., Mayes, R., and Clough, R. (1979a). “Shaking table study of single-story masonry houses—Volume 1: Test structures 1 and 2.” Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA, 260.
Gülkan, P., Mayes, R., and Clough, R. (1979b). “Shaking table study of single-story masonry houses—Volume 2: Test structures 3 and 4.” Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA, 249.
Haach, V. G., Vasconcelos, G., and Lourenço, P. B. (2011). “Parametrical study of masonry walls subjected to in-plane loading through numerical modeling.” Eng. Struct., 33(4), 1377–1389.
Harris, H., and Sabnis, G. (1999). Structural modeling and experimental techniques, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Hart, G. C., Noland, J. L., Kingsley, G. R., Englekirk, R. E., and Sajjad, N. A. (1988). “The use of confinement steel to increase the ductility in reinforced concrete masonry shear walls.” Masonry Soc. J., 7(2), T19–T42.
Heerema, P., Ashour, A., Shedid, M., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2015a). “System-level displacement- and performance-based seismic design parameter quantifications for an asymmetrical reinforced concrete masonry building.” J. Struct. Eng., 04015032.
Heerema, P., Shedid, M., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2015b). “Seismic response analysis of a reinforced concrete block shear wall asymmetric building.” J. Struct. Eng., 04014178.
Heerema, P., Shedid, M., Konstantinidis, D., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2015c). “System-level seismic performance assessment of an asymmetrical reinforced concrete block shear wall building.” J. Struct. Eng., 04015047.
Heerema, P., Siyam, S., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2011). “Proposed system-level testing of multi-storey reinforced masonry buildings under simulated seismic loading.” 11th North American Masonry Conf., The Masonry Society, Longmont, CO.
Hernández, J. F. (2012). “Quasi-static testing of cantilever masonry shear wall segments.” M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX.
Hidalgo, P., and Luders, C. (1986). “Shear strength of reinforced masonry walls under earthquake excitation.” Proc., 3rd U.S. National Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 2, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, CA, 1335–1546.
Hidalgo, P., Mayes, R., McNiven, H., and Clough, R. (1979). “Cyclic loading tests of masonry single piers. Vol. 3: Height to width ratio of 0.5.” Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA, 153.
Hidalgo, P. A., Mayes, R., McNiven, H., and Clough, R. (1978). “Cyclic loading tests of masonry single piers. Volume 1—Height to width ratio of 2.” Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA, 140.
Hoque, N. (2013). “In-plane cyclic testing of reinforced concrete masonry walls to assess the effect of varying reinforcement anchorage and boundary conditions.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Calgary, Calgary, AL, Canada.
Ibrahim, K., and Suter, G. (1999). “Ductility of concrete masonry shear walls subjected to cyclic loading.” Proc., 8th North American Masonry Conf., The Masonry Society, Longmont, CO.
ICBO (International Conference of Building Officials). (1997). “1997 uniform building code.” Vol. 2, Whittier, CA.
Ingham, J., Davidson, B., Brammer, D., and Voon, K. (2001). “Testing and codification of partially grout-filled nominally-reinforced concrete masonry subjected to in-plane cyclic loads.” Masonry Soc. J., 19(1), 83–96.
Joyal, M. (2014). “Enhanced ductility of masonry shear walls using laterally confined (self-reinforced) concrete block.” M.Sc. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Kaminosono, T., Isoishi, H., Yamaguchi, Y., and Kaway, R. (1986). “Seismic capacity of reinforced masonry walls including effects of axial stress.” Proc., 4th Canadian Masonry Symp., Univ. of New Brunswick, NB, Canada.
Kaminosono, T., Teshigawara, M., Hiraishi, H., Fujisawa, M., and Nakaoka, A. (1988). “Experimental studies on seismic performance of reinforced masonry walls.” Proc., 9th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, International Association for Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, 109–114.
Kapoi, C. M. (2012). “Experimental performance of concrete masonry shear walls under in-plane loading.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
Kasparik, T., Tait, M. J., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2014). “Seismic performance assessment of partially grouted, nominally reinforced concrete-masonry structural walls using shake table testing.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 216–227.
Kazaz, İ. (2012) “Analytical study on plastic hinge length of structural walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 1938–1950.
Kikuchi, K., et al. (2004). “Experimental study on seismic capacity of reinforced fully grouted concrete masonry walls.” Proc., 13th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, International Association for Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, 1880.
Kikuchi, K., Yoshimura, K., Kanema, T., and Tanaka, A. (1997). “Effect of vertical axial loads on seismic behavior of grouted masonry walls.” Proc., 11th Int. Brick/Block Masonry Conf., Vol. 1, Historical and Masonry Structures Group, Univ. of Minho, Braga, Portugal, 595–604.
King, J. W. H. (1946). “The effect of lateral reinforcement in reinforced concrete columns.” Struct. Eng., 24(7), 355–388.
Kingsley, G., Seible, F., Klingner, R., Mayes, R. L., and Shing, B. (1994). “Testing of large-scale reinforced masonry components and systems.” Univ. of California, San Diego.
Klingner, R., and LeivaH, G. (1992). “Behavior and design of multi-story masonry walls under in-plane seismic loading.” Proc., 10th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, International Association for Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, 3511.
Krawinkler, H. (1979). “Possibilities and limitations of scale-model testing in earthquake engineering.” Proc., 2nd U.S. National Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, CA, 283–292.
Leiva, G. H. (1991). “Seismic resistance of two story masonry walls with openings.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX.
Lent, M. L. (1931). “Reinforced brick masonry.” J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 14(7), 469–481.
Lourenço, P. B. (1996). “Computational strategies for masonry structures.” Ph.D. thesis, Delft Univ. of Technology, Delft, Netherlands.
Lourenço, P. B., and Rots, J. G. (1997). “Multisurface interface model for analysis of masonry structures.” J. Eng. Mech., 660–668.
Lourenço, P. B., Rots, J. G., and Blaauwendraad, J. (1995). “Two approaches for the analysis of masonry structures: Micro and macro-modeling.” HERON J., 40(4), 313–340.
Mahin, S., and Shing, P. (1985). “Pseudodynamic method for seismic testing.” J. Struct. Eng., 1482–1503.
Mahin, S., Shing, P., Thewalt, C., and Hanson, R. (1989). “Pseudodynamic test method—Current status and future directions.” J. Struct. Eng., 2113–2128.
Maleki, M. (2008). “Behaviour of partially grouted reinforced masonry shear walls under cyclic reversed loading.” Ph.D. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Matsumura, A. (1985). “Effect of shear reinforcement in concrete masonry walls.” Proc., First Joint Technical Coordinating Committee on Masonry Research, U.S.-Japan Coordinated Earthquake Research Program, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD.
Matsumura, A. (1987). “Shear strength of reinforced hollow unit masonry walls.” Proc., Second Joint Technical Coordinating Committee on Masonry Research, U.S.-Japan Coordinated Earthquake Research Program, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD.
Matsumura, A. (1988). “Shear strength of reinforced masonry walls.” Proc., 9th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Japan Association for Earthquake Disaster Prevention, Tokyo, 121–126.
Mavros, M. (2015). “Experimental and numerical investigation of the seismic performance of reinforced masonry structures.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. California, San Diego.
Mavros, M., Ahmadi, F., Shing, P., Klingner, R., McLean, D., and Stavridis, A. (2016). “Shake-table tests of a full-scale two-story shear-dominated reinforced masonry wall structure.” J. Struct. Eng., 04016078.
Mayes, R. L., and Clough, R. W. (1974). “Cyclic tests on masonry piers.” Bull. New Zealand Nat. Soc. Earthquake Eng., 7(3), 1340–2040.
Mayes, R. L., Omote, Y., and Clough, R. W. (1976a). “Cyclic shear tests of masonry piers. Volume 1: Test results.” Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA, 105.
Mayes, R. L., Omote, Y., and Clough, R. W. (1976b). “Cyclic shear tests of masonry piers. Volume 2: Analysis of test results.” Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA.
McCoy, J. (1906). “The use of concrete blocks in building construction.” Univ. of Illinois, Champaign, IL.
McKenna, F., Fenves, G. L., and Scott, M. H. (2000). “Open system for earthquake engineering simulation.” Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA.
Minaie, E., Mota, M., Moon, F., and Hamid, A. (2010). “In-plane behavior of partially grouted reinforced concrete masonry shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 1089–1097.
Mojiri, S., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., and Tait, M. J. (2015a). “Seismic fragility evaluation of lightly reinforced concrete-block shear walls for probabilistic risk assessment.” J. Struct. Eng., 04014116.
Mojiri, S., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., and Tait, M. J. (2015b). “Shake table seismic performance assessment of lightly reinforced concrete block shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 04014105.
Mojiri, S., Tait, M. J., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2014). “Seismic response analysis of lightly reinforced concrete block masonry shear walls based on shake table tests.” J. Struct. Eng., 04014057.
Moss, P., and Scrivener, J. (1968). “Concrete masonry wall panel tests: The effect of cavity filling on shear behaviour.” NZ Concr. Constr., 12(4), 60–63.
MSJC (Masonry Standards Joint Committee). (2008). “Building code requirements for masonry structures.” ACI 530/ASCE 5, TMS 402, ASCE, Reston, VA.
MSJC (Masonry Standards Joint Committee). (2011). “Building code requirements for masonry structures.” ACI 530/ASCE 5, TMS 402, ASCE, Reston, VA.
MSJC (Masonry Standards Joint Committee). (2013). “Building code requirements for masonry structures.” ACI 530/ASCE 5, TMS 402, ASCE, Reston, VA.
NEHRP (National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program). (1997). “Recommended provisions for seismic regulations for new buildings and other structures. Part 1: Provisions.” Building Seismic Safety Council, Washington, DC.
Nolph, S. M. (2010). “In-plane shear performance of partially grouted masonry shear walls.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
Nolph, S. M., and ElGawady, M. A. (2012). “Static cyclic response of partially grouted masonry shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 864–879.
NRC (National Research Council of Canada). (2010). “National building code of Canada (NBCC-10).” Institute for Research in Construction, Ottawa.
Oan, A. F., and Shrive, N. G. (2012). “Experimental study of the ductility of reinforced masonry walls.” 12th Canadian Masonry Symp., Canada Masonry Design Centre, Mississauga, ON, Canada.
Okamoto, S., Yamazaki, Y., Kaminosono, T., Teshigawara, M., and Hirashi, H. (1987). “Seismic capacity of reinforced masonry walls and beams, in wind and seismic effects.” Proc., 18th Joint Meeting, U.S.-Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects, NBSIR, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD.
Paulay, T., and Priestly, M. (1992). Seismic design of reinforced concrete and masonry buildings, Wiley, New York.
Paulson, T. J. (1991). “An experimental study of the response of reinforced masonry building systems to earthquake motions.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL.
Petry, S., and Beyer, K. (2014). “Scaling unreinforced masonry for reduced-scale seismic testing.” Bull. Earthquake Eng., 12(6), 2557–2581.
Priestley, M., and Bridgeman, D. (1974). “Seismic resistance of brick masonry walls.” Bull. New Zealand Nat. Soc. Earthquake Eng., 8(3), 238–240.
Priestley, M., and Elder, D. (1982). “Cyclic loading tests of slender concrete masonry shear walls.” Bull. New Zealand Nat. Soc. Earthquake Eng., 15(1), 3–21.
Priestley, N., Calvi, G., and Kowalsky, M. (2007). Displacement-based seismic design of structures, IUSS Press, Pavia, Italy.
Ramírez, P., Sandoval, C., and Almazán, J. L. (2016). “Experimental study on in-plane cyclic response of partially grouted reinforced concrete masonry shear walls.” Eng. Struct., 126, 598–617.
Roberts, J. J., Edgell, G. J., and Rathbone, A. (1986). Handbook to BS 5628, Part 2: BS 5628, 1985, British Standard code of practice for use of masonry, Part 2: Structural use of reinforced and prestressed masonry, Palladian Publications, Surrey, U.K.
Safford, F., and Masri, S. (1981). “Development of force pulse train generators for the study of dynamic response.” 2nd ASCE-EMD Specialty Conf. on Dynamic Response of Structures, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Sajjad, N. A. (1990). “Confinement of concrete masonry.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of California, Los Angeles.
SANZ (Standard Association of New Zealand). (1990). “Code of practice for the design of masonry structures.” NZS 4230:1990, Wellington, New Zealand.
SANZ (Standard Association of New Zealand). (1999). “Code of practice for the design of masonry structures.” NZS 4230:1999, Wellington, New Zealand.
SANZ (Standards Association of New Zealand). (2004). “Design of reinforced concrete masonry structures.” NZS 4230:2004, Wellington, New Zealand.
Schneider, R. R. (1959). “Lateral load tests on reinforced grouted masonry shear walls: A report of an investigation to the division of architecture.”, Univ. of Southern California Engineering Centre, Los Angeles.
Schneider, R. R. (1969). “Shear in concrete masonry piers.”, California State Polytechnic College, School of Engineering, Pomona, CA.
Schultz, A. (1996a). “Seismic performance of partially-grouted masonry shear walls.” Proc., 11th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, International Association for Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, 246–256.
Schultz, A. E. (1994). “NIST research program on the seismic resistance of partially-grouted masonry shear walls.” U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
Schultz, A. E. (1996d). “Seismic resistance of partially-grouted masonry shear walls.” Proc., Worldwide Advances in Structural Concrete and Masonry, ASCE, Reston, VA, 211–222.
Schultz, A. E., Hutchinson, R. S., and Cheok, G. C. (1998). “Seismic performance of masonry walls with bed joint reinforcement.” Proc., Structural Engineers World Congress, Elsevier Science, New York, 18–23.
Scrivener, J. (1966). “Concrete masonry wall panel tests—Static racking tests with predominant flexural effect.” New Zealand Concr. Constr., 10, 119–124.
Scrivener, J. C. (1972). “Reinforced masonry - Seismic behaviour and design.” Bull. New Zealand Nat. Soc. Earthquake Eng., 5(4), 143–155.
Seible, F., Hegemier, G., Igarashi, A., and Kingsley, G. (1994a). “Simulated seismic-load tests on full-scale five-story masonry building.” J. Struct. Eng., 903–924.
Seible, F., Okada, T., Yamazaki, Y., and Teshigawara, M. (1987b). “The Japanese 5-story full scale reinforced concrete masonry test—Design and construction of the test specimen.” Masonry Soc. J., 6(2), 1–19.
Seible, F., Priestley, M., Kingsley, G., and Kürkchübasche, A. (1994b). “Seismic response of full-scale five-story reinforced-masonry building.” J. Struct. Eng., 925–946.
Seible, F., Yamazaki, Y., Kaminosono, T., and Teshigawara, M. (1987a). “The Japanese 5-story full scale reinforced concrete masonry test—Loading and instrumentation of the test building.” Masonry Soc. J., 6(2), 20–37.
Seif ElDin, H. M. (2016). “In-plane shear behaviour of fully grouted reinforced masonry shear walls.” Ph.D. thesis, Concordia Univ., Montréal.
Seif ElDin, H. M., and Galal, K. (2015a). “In-plane shear behavior of fully grouted reinforced masonry shear walls.” Proc., 12th North American Masonry Conf., The Masonry Society, Longmont, CO.
Seif ElDin, H. M., and Galal, K. (2015b). “Survey of design equations for the in-plane shear capacity of reinforced masonry shear walls.” Proc., 12th North American Masonry Conf., The Masonry Society, Longmont, CO.
Shedid, M. M. T. (2006). “Ductility of reinforced concrete masonry shear walls.” M.Sc. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Shedid, M. M. T. (2009). “Strategies to enhance seismic performance of reinforced masonry shear walls.” Ph.D. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Shedid, M. T., Drysdale, R. G., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2008). “Behavior of fully grouted reinforced concrete masonry shear walls failing in flexure: Experimental results.” J. Struct. Eng., 1754–1767.
Shedid, M. T., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2014). “Plastic hinge model and displacement-based seismic design parameter quantifications for reinforced concrete block structural walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 04013090.
Shedid, M. T., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., and Drysdale, R. G. (2009). “Behavior of fully grouted reinforced concrete masonry shear walls failing in flexure: Analysis.” Eng. Struct., 31(9), 2032–2044.
Shedid, M. T., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., and Drysdale, R. G. (2010a). “Alternative strategies to enhance the seismic performance of reinforced concrete-block shear wall systems.” J. Struct. Eng., 676–689.
Shedid, M. T., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., and Drysdale, R. G. (2010b). “Characteristics of rectangular, flanged, and end-confined reinforced concrete masonry shear walls for seismic design.” J. Struct. Eng., 1471–1482.
Shedid, M. T., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., and Drysdale, R. G. (2010c). “Seismic performance parameters for reinforced concrete-block shear wall construction.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 4–18.
Shedid, M. T., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., and Drysdale, R. G. (2011). “Seismic response modification factors for reinforced masonry structural walls.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 74–86.
Sherman, J. D. (2011). “Effects of key parameters on the performance of concrete masonry shear walls under in-plane loading.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
Shing, P., Brunner, J. D., and Lotfi, H. R. (1993a). “Evaluation of shear strength of reinforced masonry walls.” Masonry Soc. J., 12(1), 65–77.
Shing, P., Klamerus, E., Spaeh, H., and Noland, J. (1988). “Seismic performance of reinforced masonry shear walls.” Proc., 9th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, International Association for Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, 103–108.
Shing, P., Noland, J., Klamerus, E., and Spaeh, H. (1989). “Inelastic behavior of concrete masonry shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 2204–2225.
Shing, P., Schuller, M., and Hoskere, V. (1990a). “In-plane resistance of reinforced masonry shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 619–640.
Shing, P., Schuller, M., and Hoskere, V. (1990b). “Strength and ductility of reinforced masonry shear walls.” Proc., 5th North America Masonry Conf., The Masonry Society, Longmont, CO, 309–320.
Shing, P., Schuller, M., Hoskere, V., and Carter, E. (1990c). “Flexural and shear response of reinforced masonry walls.” Struct. J., 87(6), 646–656.
Shing, P. B., Carter, E. W., Noland, J. L. (1993b). “Influence of confining steel on flexural response of reinforced masonry shear walls.” Masonry Soc. J., 11(2), 72–85.
Shing, P. B., Noland, J. L., Spaeh, H. P., Klamerus, E. W., Schuller, M. P. (1991). “Response of single-story reinforced masonry shear walls to in-plane lateral loads.” Dept. of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, CO.
Siam, A., Ezzeldin, M., and El-Dakhakhani, W. (2017a). “Reliability of displacement capacity prediction models for reinforced concrete block shear walls” J. Struct. Eng., in press.
Siam, A., Shedid, M., Guo, Y., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2015). “Reliability of plastic hinge models for reinforced concrete and reinforced concrete block structural walls.” Proc., 12th North American Masonry Conf. (CD-ROM), The Masonry Society, Longmont, CO.
Siam, A. S., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., and Li, Z. (2017e). “Seismic risk assessment of reinforced masonry structural wall systems using multivariate data analysis.” Eng. Struct., 144, 58–72.
Siam, A. S., Hussein, W. M., and El-Dakhakhni, W. W. (2017b). “Scoring models for reinforced masonry shear wall maximum displacement prediction under seismic loads.” Eng. Struct., 136(1), 511–522.
Siyam, M. (2016). “Seismic performance assessment of ductile reinforced concrete block structural walls.” Ph.D. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Siyam, M. A., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., Banting, B. R., and Drysdale, R. G. (2015a). “Seismic response evaluation of ductile reinforced concrete block structural walls. II: Displacement and performance-based design parameters.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 04015067.
Siyam, M. A., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., Shedid, M. T., and Drysdale, R. G. (2015b). “Seismic response evaluation of ductile reinforced concrete block structural walls. I: experimental results and force-based design parameters.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 04015066.
Siyam, M. A., Konstantinidis, D., and El-Dakhakhni, W. (2016). “Collapse fragility evaluation of ductile reinforced concrete block wall systems for seismic risk assessment.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 04016047.
Snook, M. K. (2005). “Effects of confinement reinforcement on the performance of masonry shear walls.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
Snook, M. K., McLean, D., McDaniel, C., and Pollock, D. (2005). “Effects of confinement reinforcement on the performance of masonry shear walls.” Proc., 10th Canadian Masonry Symp., Canadian Masonry Design Centre, Mississauga, ON, Canada.
Standards Association of Australia. (2001). “Masonry structures.” AS 3700-2001, North Sydney, Australia.
Stavridis, A., et al. (2011). “Shake-table tests of a 3-story, full-scale masonry wall system.” Proc., ACI Masonry Seminar, Farmington Hills, MI.
Stavridis, A., Ahmadi, F., Mavros, M., Shing, P. B., Klingner, R. E., and McLean, D. (2016). “Shake-table tests of a full-scale three-story reinforced masonry shear wall structure.” J. Struct. Eng., 04016074.
Stavridis, A., Mavridis, M., Ahmadi, F., Shing, B., Klingner, R., and McLean, D. (2013). “Shake-table testing of a 3-story, full-scale, reinforced masonry wall system.” Proc., 15th Int. Brick and Block Masonry Conf., Historical and Masonry Structures Group, Univ. of Minho, Braga, Portugal.
Sucuoglu, H., and McNiven, H. (1991). “Seismic shear capacity of reinforced masonry piers.” J. Struct. Eng., 2166–2185.
Sveinsson, B., McNiven, H., and Sucuoglu, H. (1985). “Cyclic loading tests of masonry single piers—Volume 4: Additional tests with height to width ratio of 1.” Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA.
Takanashi, K., and Nakashima, M. (1987). “Japanese activities on on-line testing.” J. Eng. Mech., 1014–1032.
Takanashi, K., Udagawa, K., Seki, M., Okada, T., and Tanaka, H. (1975). “Nonlinear earthquake response analysis of structures by a computer-actuator on-line system.” Bull. Earthquake Resistant Struct. Res. Center, 8, 1–17.
Tomaževič, M., Lutman, M., and Petkovic, L. (1996). “Seismic behavior of masonry walls: Experimental simulation.” J. Struct. Eng., 1040–1047.
Tomaževič, M., and Velechovsky, T. (1992). “Some aspects of testing small-scale masonry building models on simple earthquake simulators.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn., 21(11), 945–963.
Tomaževič, M., and Weiss, P. (1994). “Seismic behavior of plain-and reinforced-masonry buildings.” J. Struct. Eng., 323–338.
Umemura, H., Kamimura, K., Okada, T., Okamoto, S., and Yamazaki, Y. (1985). “U.S.-Japan joint earthquake research program involving large-scale experiments on masonry building structures.” Proc., 7th Int. Brick/Block Masonry Conf., Vol. 1, Historical and Masonry Structures Group, Univ. of Minho, Braga, Portugal, 1303–1314.
Vandervelde, J. M. (2010). “Behaviour of a reduced-scale fully grouted reinforced.” M.Sc. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Vaughan, T. P. (2010). “Evaluation of masonry wall performance under cyclic loading.” M.Sc. thesis, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA.
Vecchio, F. J., and Michael, P. C. (1986). “The modified compression-field theory for reinforced concrete elements subjected to shear.” ACI J., 83(2), 219–231.
Voon, K. (2002). “Shear strength of masonry walls.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Auckland, New Zealand.
Voon, K., and Ingham, J. (2006). “Experimental in-plane shear strength investigation of reinforced concrete masonry walls.” J. Struct. Eng., 400–408.
Voon, K., and Ingham, J. (2007). “Design expression for the in-plane shear strength of reinforced concrete masonry.” J. Struct. Eng., 706–713.
Voon, K., and Ingham, J. M. (2008). “Experimental in-plane strength investigation of reinforced concrete masonry walls with openings.” J. Struct. Eng., 758–768.
Wallace, M., Klingner, R. E., and Schuller, M. P. (1998). “What TCCMAR taught us.” Mag. Masonry Constr., 11(11), 523–529.
Wang, F. L., Zhang, X. C., and Zhu, F. (2016). “Research progress and low-carbon property of reinforced concrete block masonry structures in China.” Proc., 16th Int. Brick and Block Masonry Conf., Taylor & Francis Group, London.
Wierzbicki, C. J. (2010). “Behaviour of reduced-scale fully-grouted concrete block shear walls.” M.Sc. thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Williams, D. (1971). “Seismic behaviour of reinforced masonry shear walls.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
Yamazaki, Y., Kaminosono, T., Teshigawara, M., and Seible, F. (1988a). “The Japanese 5-story full scale reinforced concrete masonry test—Pseudo dynamic and ultimate load test results.” Masonry Soc. J., 7(2), 1–18.
Yamazaki, Y., Seible, F., Mizuna, H., Kaminosono, T., and Teshigawara, M. (1988b). “The Japanese 5 story full scale reinforced concrete masonry test—Forced vibration and cyclic load test results.” Masonry Soc. J., 7(1), 1–17.
Zhao, Y., and Wang, F. (2015). “Experimental studies on behavior of fully grouted reinforced-concrete masonry shear walls.” Earthquake Eng. Eng. Vibr., 14(4), 743–757.
Zonta, D., Zanardo, G., and Modena, C. (2001). “Experimental evaluation of the ductility of a reduced-scale reinforced masonry building.” Mater. Struct., 34(10), 636–644.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 143 • Issue 9 • September 2017
Copyright
©2017 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Nov 19, 2016
Accepted: Mar 7, 2017
Published online: Jun 29, 2017
Published in print: Sep 1, 2017
Discussion open until: Nov 29, 2017
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.