Forum
Nov 15, 2013

Computational Simulation of Gravity-Induced Progressive Collapse of Steel-Frame Buildings: Current Trends and Future Research Needs

Publication: Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 140, Issue 8
First page of PDF

Get full access to this article

View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.

Acknowledgments

The presented work was supported in part by the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Michigan and the National Science Foundation (NSF) through grants CMMI-0928193 and CMMI-0928953. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, and recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.

References

Agarwal, J., Blockley, D., and Woodman, N. (2003). “Vulnerability of structural systems.” Struct. Safety, 25(3), 263–286.
Alashker, Y., and El-Tawil, S. (2011). “A design-oriented model for the collapse resistance of composite floors subjected to column loss.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 67(1), 84–92.
Alashker, Y., El-Tawil, S., and Sadek, F. (2010). “Progressive collapse resistance of steel-concrete composite floors.” J. Struct. Eng., 1187–1196.
Alashker, Y., Li, H., and El-Tawil, S. (2011). “Approximations in progressive collapse modeling.” J. Struct. Eng., 914–924.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). (2010). “Seismic provisions for structural steel buildings.” AISC 34-10, Chicago.
Arora, J. S., Haskell, D. F., and Govil, A. K. (1980). “Optimal design of large structures for damage tolerance.” AIAA J., 18(5), 563–570.
ASCE. (2007). “Seismic rehabilitation of existing buildings.” ASCE 41-06, Reston, VA.
Asprone, D., Jalayer, F., Prota, A., and Manfredi, G. (2010). “Proposal of a probabilistic model for multi-hazard risk assessment of structures in seismic zones subjected to blast for the limit state of collapse.” Struct. Safety, 32(1), 25–34.
Asprone, D., Jalayer, F., Prota, A., and Manfredi, G. (2011). “Performance of different seismic retrofitting techniques in case of blast induced progressive collapse.” Appl. Mech. Mater., 82, 485–490.
Astaneh-Asl, A., Jones, B., Zhao, Y., and Hwa, R. (2001). “Progressive collapse resistance of steel building floors.”, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Bae, S. W., LaBoube, R. A., Belarbi, A., and Ayoub, A. (2008). “Progressive collapse of cold-formed steel framed structures.” Thin-Walled Struct., 46(7–9), 706–719.
Bao, Y., and Kunnath, S. K. (2010). “Simplified progressive collapse simulation of RC frame-wall structures.” Eng. Struct., 32(10), 3153–3162.
Bao, Y., Kunnath, S. K., El-Tawil, S., and Lew, H. S. (2008). “Macromodel-based simulation of progressive collapse: RC frame structures.” J. Struct. Eng., 1079–1091.
Bazant, Z. P., Le, J., Greening, F. R., and Benson, D. B. (2008). “What did and did not cause collapse of World Trade Center twin tower in New York.” J. Eng. Mech., 892–906.
Bažant, Z. P., and Verdure, M. (2007). “Mechanics of progressive collapse: Learning from World Trade Center and building eemolitions.” J. Eng. Mech., 308–319.
Bažant, Z. P., and Zhou, Y. (2002). “Why did the World Trade Center collapse? Simple analysis.” J. Eng. Mech., 369–370.
Bennett, R. M. (1988). “Formulations for probability of progressive collapse.” Struct. Safety, 5(1), 66–77.
Benzerga, A. A., and Besson, J. (2001). “Plastic potentials for anisotropic porous solids.” Eur. J. Mech. A Solids, 20(3), 397–434.
Benzerga, A. A., Besson, J., and Pineau, A. (1999). “Coalescence-controlled anisotropic ductile fracture.” J. Eng. Mater. Technol., 121(2), 221–229.
Braverman, J. I., Miller, C. A., Hofmayer, C. H., Ellingwood, B. R., Naus, D. J., and Chang, T. Y. (2004). “Degradation assessment of structures and passive components at nuclear power plants.” Nucl. Eng. Des., 228(1), 283–304.
Byfield, M. P. (2006). “Behavior and design of commercial multistory buildings subjected to blast.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 324–329.
Casciati, F., and Faravelli, L. (1984). “Progressive failure for seismic reliability analysis.” Eng. Struct., 6(2), 97–103.
Chao, S.-H., Khandelwal, K., and El-Tawil, S. (2006). “Ductile fracture initiation in shear link webs.” J. Struct. Eng., 1192–1200.
Cherepanov, G. P. (2006). “Mechanics of WTC collapse.” Int. J. Fract., 141(1–2), 287–289.
Chiaia, B. M., and Masoero, E. (2008). “Analogies between progressive collapse of structures and fracture of materials.” Int. J. Fract., 154(1–2), 177–193.
Corley, W. G., Mlakar, P. F., Sr., Sozen, M. A., and Thornton, C. H. (1998). “Oklahoma City bombing: Summary and recommendations for multihazard mitigation.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 100–112.
Elkholy, S., and Meguro, K. (2005). “Numerical study of collapse behavior of steel buildings due to extremely high seismic load.” JSCE J. Earthquake Eng., 28, 1–8.
Ellingwood, B., and Leyendecker, E. V. (1978). “Approaches for design against progressive collapse.” J. Struct. Div., 104(3), 413–423.
Ellingwood, B. R. (2006). “Mitigating risk from abnormal loads and progressive collapse.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 315–323.
El-Tawil, S., Mikesell, T. D., and Kunnath, S. K. (2000). “Effect of local details and material properties on inelastic behavior of FR steel connections.” J. Struct. Eng., 79–87.
El-Tawil, S., Vidarsson, E., Mikesell, T., and Kunnath, S. K. (1999). “Inelastic behavior and design of steel panel zones.” J. Struct. Eng., 183–193.
Ferahian, R. H. (1972). “Buildings: Design for prevention of progressive collapse.” Civ. Eng., 42(2), 66–69.
Fu, F. (2009). “Progressive collapse analysis of high-rise building with 3-D finite element modeling method.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 65(6), 1269–1278.
Fu, F. (2010). “3-D nonlinear dynamic progressive collapse analysis of multi-storey steel composite frame buildings—parametric study.” Eng. Struct., 32(12), 3974–3980.
Galal, K., and El-Sawy, T. (2010). “Effect of retrofit strategies on mitigating progressive collapse of steel frame structures.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 66(4), 520–531.
Garajeu, M., Michel, J. C., and Suquet, P. (2000). “A micromechanical approach of damage in viscoplastic materials by evolution size, shape and distribution of voids.” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., 183(3–4), 223–246.
General Service Administration (GSA). (2003). “Progressive collapse analysis and design guidelines for new federal office buildings and major modernization projects.” Washington, DC.
Gologanu, M., Leblond, J. B., and Devaux, J. (1993). “Approximate models for ductile metals containing non-spherical voids: Case of axisymmetric prolate ellipsoidal cavities.” J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 41(11), 1723–1754.
Gologanu, M., Leblond, J. B., and Devaux, J. (1994). “Approximate models for ductile metals containing non-spherical voids: Case of axisymmetric oblate ellipsoidal cavities.” J. Eng. Mater. Technol., 116(3), 290–297.
Gracia, J., Bayo, E., Ferrario, F., Bursi, O., Braconi, A., and Salvatore, W. (2010). “The seismic performance of a semi-rigid composite joint with a double-sided extended end-plate. Part I: Experimental research.” Eng. Struct., 32(2), 385–396.
Grierson, D. E., Xu, L., and Liu, Y. (2005). “Progressive-failure analysis of buildings subjected to abnormal loading.” Comput. Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng., 20(3), 155–171.
Griffiths, H., Pugsley, A., and Saunders, O. (1968). “Report of inquiry into the collapse of flats at Ronan Point, Canning Town.” Ministry Housing and Local Government, London.
Gross, J. L. (1998). “A connection model for the seismic analysis of welded steel moment frames.” Eng. Struct., 20(4–6), 390–397.
Gross, J. L., and McGuire, W. (1983). “Progressive collapse resistant design.” J. Struct. Eng., 1–14.
Gurson, A. L. (1977). “Continuum theory of ductile rupture by void nucleation and growth. Part I: Yield criteria and flow rules for porous ductile media.” J. Eng. Mater. Technol., 99(1), 2–15.
Hancock, J. W., and Mackenzie, A. C. (1976). “On the mechanics of ductile failure in high-strength steel subjected to multi-axial stress-states.” J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 24(2–3), 147–169.
Heidarpour, A., and Bradford, M. A. (2011). “Beam-column element for non-linear dynamic analysis of steel members subjected to blast loading.” Eng. Struct.,33(4), 1259–1266.
Hoffman, S. T., and Fahnestock, L. A. (2011). “Behavior of multi-story steel buildings under dynamic column loss scenarios.” Steel Compos. Struct., 11(2), 149–168.
House Armed Services Committee. (1996). “The Khobar Towers bombing incident.” House Armed Services Committee, Washington, DC.
Hsiao, P. C., Lehman, D. E., and Roeder, C. W. (2012). “Improved analytical model for special concentrically braced rrames.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 73, 80–94.
Isobe, D., and Tsuda, M. (2003). “Seismic collapse analysis of reinforced concrete framed structures using the finite element method.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn., 32(13), 2027–2046.
Izzuddin, B. A., Vlassis, A. G., Elghazouli, A. Y., and Nethercot, D. A. (2008). “Progressive collapse of multi-storey buildings due to sudden column loss. Part 1: Simplified assessment framework.” Eng. Struct., 30(5), 1308–1318.
Jin, J., and El-Tawil, S. (2005). “Evaluation of FEMA-350 seismic provisions for steel panel zones.” J. Struct. Eng., 250–258.
Kaewkulchai, G., and Williamson, E. B. (2003). “Dynamic behavior of planar frames during progressive collapse.” Proc., 16th Engineering Mechanics Conf., ASCE, Reston, VA.
Kaewkulchai, G., and Williamson, E. B. (2004). “Beam element formulation and solution procedure for dynamic progressive collapse analysis.” Comput. Struct., 82(7–8), 639–651.
Kanvinde, A. M., and Deierlein, G. G. (2006). “Void growth model and stress modified critical strain model to predict ductile fracture in structural steels.” J. Struct. Eng., 1907–1918.
Kaplan, S., Perla, H. F., and Bley, D. C. (1983). “A methodology for seismic risk analysis of nuclear power plants.” Risk Anal., 3(3), 169–180.
Karns, J. E., Houghton, D. L., Hall, B. E., Kim, J., and Lee, K. (2006). “Blast testing of steel frame assemblies to assess the implications of connection behavior on progressive collapse.” Proc., Structures Congress: Structural Engineering Research Frontiers, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Karns, J. E., Houghton, D. L., Hall, B. E., Kim, J., and Lee, K. (2007). “Analytical verification of blast testing of steel frame moment connection assemblies.” Proc., Structures Congress: Structural Engineering Research Frontiers, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Karns, J. E., Houghton, D. L., Kim, J., and Hong, J. K. (2008). “GSA steel frame bomb blast & progressive collapse test progressive report.” General Services Administration, Washington, DC.
Kennedy, R. P., Cornell, C. A., Campbell, R. D., Kaplan, S., and Perla, H. F. (1980). “Probabilistic seismic safety study of an existing nuclear power plant.” Nucl. Eng. Des., 59(2), 315–338.
Kennedy, R. P., and Ravindra, M. K. (1984). “Seismic fragilities for nuclear power plant risk studies.” Nucl. Eng. Des., 79(1), 47–68.
Khalil, A. A. (2012). “Enhanced modeling of steel structures for progressive collapse analysis using the applied element method.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 766–779.
Khandelwal, K. (2008). “Multi-scale computational simulation of progressive collapse of steel frames.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
Khandelwal, K., and El-Tawil, S. (2007). “Collapse behavior of steel special moment resisting frame connections.” J. Struct. Eng., 646–655.
Khandelwal, K., and El-Tawil, S. (2011). “Pushdown resistance as a measure of robustness in progressive collapse analysis.” Eng. Struct., 33(9), 2653–2661.
Khandelwal, K., El-Tawil, S., Kunnath, S. K., and Lew, H. S. (2008). “Macro-model based simulations of progressive collapse: Steel frame structures.” J. Struct. Eng., 1070–1078.
Khandelwal, K., El-Tawil, S., and Sadek, F. (2009). “Progressive collapse analysis of seismically designed steel braced frames.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 65(3), 699–708.
Kim, H. S., Kim, J., and An, D. W. (2009). “Development of integrated system for progressive collapse analysis of building structures considering dynamic effects,” Adv. Eng. Softw., 40(1), 1–8.
Kim, J., and An, D. (2009). “Evaluation of progressive collapse potential of steel moment frames considering catenary action.” Struct. Des. Tall Special Build., 18(4), 455–465.
Kim, J., and Jung, M. (2013). “Progressive collapse-resisting capacity of modular mega-frame buildings.” Struct. Des. Tall Special Build., 22(6), 471–484.
Kim, J., and Kim, T. (2009c). “Assessment of progressive collapse-resisting capacity of steel moment frames.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 65(1), 169–179.
Kim, J., Lee, S., and Choi, H. (2013). “Progressive collapse resisting capacity of moment frames with viscous dampers.” Struct. Des. Tall Special Build., 22(5), 399–414.
Kim, J., Lee, Y., and Choi, H. (2011a). “Progressive collapse resisting capacity of braced frames.” Struct. Des. Tall Special Build., 20(2), 257–270.
Kim, J., Park, J. H., and Lee, T. H. (2011b). “Sensitivity analysis of steel buildings subjected to column loss.” Eng. Struct., 33(2), 421–432.
Kim, T., and Kim, J. (2009a). “Progressive collapse-resisting capacity of steel moment frames considering panel zone deformation.” Adv. Struct. Eng., 12(2), 231–240.
Kim, T., and Kim, J. (2009b). “Collapse analysis of steel moment frames with various seismic connections.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 65(6), 1316–1322.
Krawinkler, H. (1978). “Shear in beam-column joints in seismic design of steel frames.” Eng. J., 15(3), 82–91.
Kwasniewski, L. (2010). “Nonlinear dynamic simulations of progressive collapse for a multistory building.” Eng. Struct., 32(5), 1223–1235.
Lavan, O., Sivaselvan, M. V., Reinhorn, A. M., and Dargush, G. F. (2009). “Progressive collapse analysis through strength degradation and fracture in the mixed Lagrangian formulation.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn., 38(13), 1483–1504.
Leblond, J. B., Perrin, G., and Devaux, J. (1995). “An improved Gurson-type model for hardenable ductile metals.” Eur. J. Mech. A Solids, 14(4), 499–527.
Lee, K., and Foutch, D. A. (2002). “Performance evaluation of new steel frame buildings for seismic loads.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn., 31(3), 653–670.
Lewicki, B., and Olesen, S. O. (1974). “Limiting the possibility of progressive collapse.” Build. Res. Pract., 2(1), 10–13.
Leyendecker, E. V., and Ellingwood, B. R. (1977). “Design to reduce the risk of progressive collapse.”, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC.
Li, H., and El-Tawil, S. (2013). “Three-dimensional effects and collapse resistance mechanisms in steel frame buildings.” J. Struct. Eng.,.
Liu, Y., Xu, L., and Grierson, D. E. (2010). “Influence of semi-rigid connections and local joint damage on progressive collapse of steel frameworks.” Comput. Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng., 25(3), 184–204.
Mackenzie, A. C., Hancock, J. W., and Brown, D. K. (1977). “On the influence of state of stress on the ductile failure initiation in high strength steels.” Eng. Fract. Mech., 9(1), 167–188.
Main, J., and Sadek, F. (2012). “Robustness of steel gravity frame systems with single-plate shear connections.”, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
Main, J. A. (2009). “Development of 3D models of steel moment-frame buildings for assessment of robustness and progressive collapse vulnerability.” Proc., 2009 Structures Congress, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Masoero, E., Wittel, F. K., Herrmann, H. J., and Chiaia, B. M. (2010). “Progressive collapse mechanisms of brittle and ductile framed structures.” J. Eng. Mech., 987–995.
McClintock, F. A. (1968). “A criterion for ductile fracture by the growth of holes.” J. Appl. Mech., 35(2), 363–371.
McConnel, R. E., and Kelly, S. J. (1983). “Structural aspects of progressive collapse of warehouse racking.” Struct. Eng., 61A(11), 343–347.
McGuire, W. (1975). “Prevention of progressive collapse.” ASCE Int. Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering Regional Conf. on Tall Buildings, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Meguro, K., and Tagel-Din, H. (2001). “Applied element simulation of RC structures under cyclic loading.” J. Struct. Eng., 1295–1305.
Mlakar, P. F., Sr., Corley, W. G., Sozen, M. A., and Thornton, C. H. (1998). “Oklahoma City bombing: Analysis of blast damage to the Murrah Building.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 113–119.
Mohamed, O. A. (2009). “Assessment of progressive collapse potential in corner floor panels of reinforced concrete buildings.” Eng. Struct., 31(3), 749–757.
Mulas, M. G. (2004). “A structural model for panel zones in non-linear seismic analysis of steel moment-resisting frames.” Eng. Struct., 26(3), 363–380.
Naji, A., and Irani, F. (2011). “Simplified procedure for progressive collapse analysis of steel structures.” Adv. Mater. Res., 255–260, 482–486.
National Institute of Standards, and Technology (NIST). (2005). “Final report on the collapse of the World Trade Center towers.” S. Shyam Sunder, lead investigator, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
Nie, J., Qin, K., and Cai, C. S. (2008). “Seismic behavior of connections composed of CFSSTCs and steel–concrete composite beams—finite element analysis.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 64(6), 680–688.
Park, J., and Kim, J. (2010). “Fragility analysis of steel moment frames with various seismic connections subjected to sudden loss of a column.” Eng. Struct., 32(6), 1547–1555.
Pearson, C., and Delatte, N. (2005). “Ronan Point Apartment tower collapse and its effect on building codes.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 172–177.
Pirmoz, A. (2011). “Performance of bolted angle connections in progressive collapse of steel frames.” Struct. Des. Tall Special Build., 20(3), 349–370.
Pretlove, A. J. (1986). “Dynamic effects in fail-safe structural design.” Proc., Int. Conf. on Steel Structures: Recent Advances and their Application to Design, Budva, Yugoslavia, Elsevier Applied Science, New York, 749–757.
Rice, J. R., and Tracey, D. M. (1969). “On the ductile enlargements of voids in the triaxial stress fields.” J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 17(3), 201–217.
Ruth, P., Marchand, K. A., and Williamson, E. B. (2006). “Static equivalency in progressive collapse alternate path analysis: Reducing conservatism while retaining structural integrity.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 349–364.
Sadek, F., El-Tawil, S., and Lew, H. S. (2008). “Robustness of composite floor systems with shear connections: Modeling, simulation, and evaluation.” J. Struct. Eng., 1717–1725.
Sadek, F., Main, J. A., Lew, H. S., and Bao, Y. (2011). “Testing and analysis of steel and concrete beam-column assemblies under a column removal scenario.” J. Struct. Eng., 881–892.
Sadek, F., Main, J. A., Robert, S. D., Chiarito, V. P., and El-Tawil, S. (2010). “An experimental and computational study of steel moment connections under a column removal scenario.”, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
Scott, M. H., and Fenves, G. L. (2010). “Krylov subspace accelerated Newton algorithm: Application to dynamic progressive collapse simulation of frames.” J. Struct. Eng., 473–480.
Seffen, K. A. (2008). “Progressive collapse of the World Trade Center: Simple analysis.” J. Eng. Mech., 125–132.
Shen, J., and Astaneh-Asl, A. (2000). “Hysteresis model of bolted-angle connections.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 54(3), 317–343.
Song, B. I., and Sezen, H. (2009). “Evaluation of an existing steel frame building against progressive collapse.” Proc., 2009 Structure Congress, ASCE, Reston, VA, 1878–1885.
Sozen, M. A., Thornton, C. H., Corley, W. G., and Mlakar, P. F., Sr. (1998). “Oklahoma City bombing: Structure and mechanics of the Murrah Building.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 113–119.
Starossek, U. (2007). “Typology of progressive collapse.” Eng. Struct., 29(9), 2302–2307.
Starossek, U., and Haberland, M. (2008). “Measures of structural robustness-requirements & applications.” Proc., 2008 Structures Congress, Vol. 314, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Szuladzinski, G. (2008). “Discussion of ‘Mechanics of Progressive Collapse: Learning from World Trade Center and Building Demolitions’ by Zdenek P. Bazant and Mathieu Verdure.” J. Eng. Mech., 913–ß915.
Szyniszewski, S. (2009). “Probabilistic approach to progressive collapse prevention. Physics based simulations.” Proc., 2009 Structures Congress, Austin, Texas, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Tagel-Din, H., and Meguro, K. (2000). “Applied element method for simulation of nonlinear materials: Theory and application for RC structures.” Struct. Eng. Earthquake Eng., 17(2), 215–224.
Tsitos, A. (2009). “Experimental and numerical investigation of the progressive collapse of steel frames.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, Univ. at Buffalo, State Univ. of New York, Buffalo, NY.
Tvergaard, V. (1981). “Influence of voids on shear band instabilities under plane strain conditions.” Int. J. Fract., 17(4), 389–407.
Tvergaard, V., and Needleman, A. (1984). “Analysis of the cup-cone fracture in a round tensile bar.” Acta Metallurgica, 32(1), 157–169.
Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC). (2009). “Design of buildings to resist progressive collapse.”, Dept. of Defense, Washington, DC.
Weigand, J. M., Meissner, J. E., Francisco, T., Berman, J. W., Fahnestock, L. A., and Liu, J. (2012). “Overview of AISC/NSF structural integrity research and preliminary results.” Proc., Structures Congress 2012, ASCE, Reston, VA, 135–145.
Williamson, E. B., and Stevens, D. J. (2009). “Modeling structural collapse including floor slab contributions.” Proc., 2009 Structures Congress, ASCE, Reston, VA, 2046–2054.
Xu, G., and Ellingwood, B. R. (2011a). “An energy-based partial pushdown analysis procedure for assessment of disproportionate collapse potential.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 67(3), 547–555.
Xu, G., and Ellingwood, B. R. (2011b). “Disproportionate collapse performance of partially restrained steel frames with bolted T-stub connections.” Eng. Struct., 33(1), 32–43.
Xu, G., and Ellingwood, B. R. (2011c). “Probabilistic robustness assessment of pre-Northridge steel moment resisting frames.” J. Struct. Eng., 925–934.
Yang, B., and Tan, K. H. (2012). “Robustness of bolted-angle connections against progressive collapse: Experimental tests of beam-column joints and development of component-based models.” J. Struct. Eng., 1498–1514.
Yu, M., Zha, X., and Ye, J. (2010). “The influence of joints and composite floor slabs on effective tying of steel structures in preventing progressive collapse.” J. Constr. Steel Res., 66(3), 442–451.
Zhang, X., and Ricles, J. M. (2006). “Seismic behavior of reduced beam section moment connections to deep columns.” J. Struct. Eng., 358–367.

Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Go to Journal of Structural Engineering
Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 140Issue 8August 2014

History

Received: Mar 20, 2013
Accepted: Jun 18, 2013
Published online: Nov 15, 2013
Discussion open until: Apr 15, 2014
Published in print: Aug 1, 2014

Permissions

Request permissions for this article.

Authors

Affiliations

Sherif El-Tawil, Ph.D. [email protected]
P.E.
F.ASCE
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2125 (corresponding author). E-mail: [email protected]
A.M.ASCE
Lecturer, School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150090, P.R. China; formerly, Ph.D. Candidate, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. E-mail: [email protected]
Sashi Kunnath, Ph.D. [email protected]
P.E.
F.ASCE
Professor and Chair, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California, Davis, CA 95616. E-mail: [email protected]

Metrics & Citations

Metrics

Citations

Download citation

If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.

Cited by

View Options

Get Access

Access content

Please select your options to get access

Log in/Register Log in via your institution (Shibboleth)
ASCE Members: Please log in to see member pricing

Purchase

Save for later Information on ASCE Library Cards
ASCE Library Cards let you download journal articles, proceedings papers, and available book chapters across the entire ASCE Library platform. ASCE Library Cards remain active for 24 months or until all downloads are used. Note: This content will be debited as one download at time of checkout.

Terms of Use: ASCE Library Cards are for individual, personal use only. Reselling, republishing, or forwarding the materials to libraries or reading rooms is prohibited.
ASCE Library Card (5 downloads)
$105.00
Add to cart
ASCE Library Card (20 downloads)
$280.00
Add to cart
Buy Single Article
$35.00
Add to cart

Get Access

Access content

Please select your options to get access

Log in/Register Log in via your institution (Shibboleth)
ASCE Members: Please log in to see member pricing

Purchase

Save for later Information on ASCE Library Cards
ASCE Library Cards let you download journal articles, proceedings papers, and available book chapters across the entire ASCE Library platform. ASCE Library Cards remain active for 24 months or until all downloads are used. Note: This content will be debited as one download at time of checkout.

Terms of Use: ASCE Library Cards are for individual, personal use only. Reselling, republishing, or forwarding the materials to libraries or reading rooms is prohibited.
ASCE Library Card (5 downloads)
$105.00
Add to cart
ASCE Library Card (20 downloads)
$280.00
Add to cart
Buy Single Article
$35.00
Add to cart

Media

Figures

Other

Tables

Share

Share

Copy the content Link

Share with email

Email a colleague

Share