Comparative Study of the Effects of Natural and Synthetic Fibers on the Mechanical Properties of Sand Treated with Enzyme-Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 35, Issue 5
Abstract
Enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (EICP) is an environmentally friendly and promising method for sand treatment. However, the effect of EICP treatment alone is not sufficient to satisfy the engineering requirements for sand. The addition of fibers is an advantageous approach to enhancing the mechanical strength of EICP-treated sand. Most fibers used as reinforcement are synthetic fibers; this practice is wasteful and poses a risk of environmental pollution. The novel exploration performed in this work investigated the enhancement effect of natural fibers for EICP-treated sand. In this study, the enhancement effects of sisal, a natural fiber, and polypropylene, a synthetic fiber, on EICP-treated sand were compared. Three aspects of the enhancement effects—calcium carbonate content, strength, and toughness—were evaluated. In addition, solution analysis and microscopy observations were conducted to analyze enhancement mechanisms. The results showed that the sisal fibers did in fact contribute to the effects on EICP-treated sand, and their enhancement effect was better than that of polypropylene fibers. Specifically, with the addition of sisal and polypropylene fibers to EICP-treated sand, values of unconfined compressive strength (UCS) were 322 and 213 kPa, respectively. The solution analysis results and microscopy observations indicated that the coarser surface structure of sisal fibers resulted in stronger reinforcement than the reinforcement provided by polypropylene fibers.
Practical Applications
The mechanical properties of sand can be improved to a certain extent when sand is treated by enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation. However, the enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation–treated samples shown obvious brittleness, which would lead to a sudden destruction. This is unacceptable in practical projects. The application of fibers not only delays the destruction of samples but also improves the strength of enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation–treated sand to a certain extent. Synthetic fibers have been widely used in soil reinforcement and brittleness reduction. This study found that natural fibers, represented by sisal fibers, can be used as a green alternative to synthetic fibers in the future. In addition, this study provided guidance for coastal zone development, island construction, and sand slope protection projects. However, it is important to note that this study was only a preliminary confirmation of the feasibility of the use of natural fibers in enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation–treated sand. Natural fibers still need some modification before they can be used in practical engineering.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the anonymous reviewers and the editor for their constructive comments on the earlier version of the manuscript. The work reported in this paper was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51508163), the Training Plan of Young Scholar in Colleges and Universities of Henan Province (Grant No. 2019GGJS041), and the Postgraduate Education Reform and Quality Improvement Project of Henan Province (Grant No. YJS2021JD13).
References
Almajed, A., H. Khodadadi, and E. Kavazanjian. 2018. “Sisal fiber reinforcement of EICP-treated soil.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., IFCEE, 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784481592.004.
Almajed, A. A. 2017. “Enzyme induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) for soil improvement.” Ph.D. dissertation, School of Sustainability, Arizona State Univ.
Al-Salloum, Y., S. Hadi, H. Abbas, T. Almusallam, and M. A. Moslem. 2017. “Bio-induction and bioremediation of cementitious composites using microbial mineral precipitation—A review.” Constr. Build. Mater. 154 (Nov): 857–876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.203.
ASTM. 2013. Standard test method for unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil. ASTM D2166. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bifathima, S., T. V. S. Vara Lakshmi, and B. N. Matcha. 2020. “Self healing concrete by adding Bacillus megaterium MTCC with glass & steel fibers.” Civ. Environ. Eng. 16 (1): 184–197. https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2020-0018.
Carmona, J., O. Paulo, J. Venda, L. Luis, and P. Antonio. 2018. “Improvement of a sandy soil by enzymatic calcium carbonate precipitation.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Geotech. Eng. 171 (1): 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeen.16.00138.
Castoldi, R., M. S. de Souza, and F. de Andrade Silva. 2019. “Comparative study on the mechanical behavior and durability of polypropylene and sisal fiber reinforced concretes.” Constr. Build. Mater. 211 (Jun): 617–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.282.
Chen, M., S. Gowthaman, K. Nakashima, and S. Kawasaki. 2021. “Evaluating mechanical strength of peat soil treated by fiber incorporated bio-cementation.” Int. J. Geomate 20 (78): 121–127. https://doi.org/10.21660/2021.78.Gx162.
Cheng, L., M. A. Shahin, and D. Mujah. 2017. “Influence of key environmental conditions on microbially induced cementation for soil stabilization.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 143 (1): 04016083. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001586.
Choi, S. G., S. S. Park, S. Wu, and J. Chu. 2017. “Methods for calcium carbonate content ceasurement of biocemented soils.” Mater. Civ. Eng. 29 (11): 06017015. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0002064.
Choi, S. G., K. Wang, and J. Chu. 2016. “Properties of biocemented, fiber reinforced sand.” Constr. Build. Mater. 120 (Sep): 623–629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.05.124.
Choi, S.-G., T. Hoang, E. J. Alleman, and J. Chu. 2019. “Splitting tensile strength of fiber-reinforced and biocemented sand.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 31 (9): 06019007. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002841.
Cui, M. J., H. J. Lai, T. Hoang, and J. Chu. 2021. “One-phase-low-pH enzyme induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) method for soil improvement.” Acta Geotech. 16 (2): 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-020-01043-2.
Cui, M. J., J. J. Zheng, R. J. Zhang, H. J. Lai, and J. Zhang. 2017. “Influence of cementation level on the strength behaviour of bio-cemented sand.” Acta Geotech. 12 (5): 971–986. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-017-0574-9.
DeJong, J. T., M. B. Fritzges, and K. Nüsslein. 2006. “Microbially induced cementation to control sand response to undrained shear.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (11): 1381–1392. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:11(1381).
El Mountassir, G., J. M. Minto, L. A. van Paassen, E. Salifu, and R. J. Lunn. 2018. Applications of microbial processes in geotechnical engineering. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
Fang, X., Y. Yang, Z. Chen, H. Liu, Y. Xiao, and C. Shen. 2020. “Influence of fiber content and length on engineering properties of MICP-treated coral sand.” Geomicrobiol. J. 37 (6): 582–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490451.2020.1743392.
Gao, Y., L. Hang, J. He, and J. Chu. 2019a. “Mechanical behaviour of biocemented sands at various treatment levels and relative densities.” Acta Geotech. 14 (3): 697–707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-018-0729-3.
Gao, Y., X. Tang, J. Chu, and J. He. 2019b. “Microbially induced calcite precipitation for seepage control in sandy soil.” Geomicrobiol. J. 36 (4): 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490451.2018.1556750.
Gomez, M. G., B. C. Martinez, J. T. Dejong, C. E. Hunt, L. A. Devlaming, D. W. Major, and S. M. Dworatzek. 2015. “Field-scale bio-cementation tests to improve sands.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Ground Improv. 168 (3): 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1680/grim.13.00052.
Hamdan, N., Z. Zhao, M. Mujica, E. Kavazanjian Jr., and X. He. 2016. “Hydrogel-assisted enzyme-induced carbonate mineral precipitation.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 28 (10): 04016089. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001604.
Hao, Y., L. Cheng, H. Hao, and M. A. Shahin. 2018. “Enhancing fiber/matrix bonding in polypropylene fiber reinforced cementitious composites by microbially induced calcite precipitation pre-treatment.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 88 (Apr): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.01.001.
Hejazi, S. M., M. Sheikhzadeh, S. M. Abtahi, and A. Zadhoush. 2012. “A simple review of soil reinforcement by using natural and synthetic fibers.” Constr. Build. Mater. 30 (May): 100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.11.045.
Ibraim, E., A. Diambra, A. R. Russell, and D. Muir Wood. 2012. “Assessment of laboratory sample preparation for fibre reinforced sands.” Geotext. Geomembr. 34 (7): 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2012.03.002.
Jiang, N.-J., et al. 2021. “Bio-mediated soil improvement: An introspection into processes, materials, characterization and applications.” Soil Use Manage. 38 (1): 68–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12736.
Jiang, N.-J., C.-S. Tang, L.-Y. Yin, Y.-H. Xie, and B. Shi. 2019. “Applicability of microbial calcification method for sandy-slope surface erosion control.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 31 (11): 04019250. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002897.
Ladd, E. S. 1989. “Properties of rocks and soils.” Dev. Geotech. Eng. 48 (Mar): 75–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-98950-5.50008-3.
Lei, X., S. Lin, Q. Meng, X. Liao, and J. Xu. 2020. “Influence of different fiber types on properties of biocemented calcareous sand.” Arabian J. Geosci. 13 (8): 317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05309-7.
Li, M., L. Li, U. Ogbonnaya, K. Wen, A. Tian, and F. Amini. 2016. “Influence of fiber addition on mechanical properties of MICP-treated sand.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 28 (4): 04015166. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001442.
Li, Y., K. Wen, L. Li, W. Huang, C. Bu, and F. Amini. 2020. “Experimental investigation on compression resistance of bio-bricks.” Constr. Build. Mater. 265 (Dec): 120751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120751.
Liu, S., K. Du, K. Wen, W. Huang, F. Amini, and L. Li. 2019. “Sandy soil improvement through microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) by immersion.” J. Visualized Exp. 2019 (151): e60059. https://doi.org/10.3791/60059.
Liu, S., K. Wen, F. Amini, and L. Li. 2020. “Investigation of nonwoven geotextiles for full contact flexible mould used in preparation of MICP-treated geomaterial.” Int. J. Geosynth. Ground Eng. 6 (2): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40891-020-00197-z.
Lv, C., C. Zhu, C. S. Tang, Q. Cheng, L. Y. Yin, and B. Shi. 2021. “Effect of fiber reinforcement on the mechanical behavior of bio-cemented sand.” Geosynth. Int. 28 (2): 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgein.20.00037.
Melo, K. M., T. F. Dos Santos, C. M. D. S. Santos, R. T. Da Fonseca, N. D. De Lucena, J. I. De Medeiros, and M. S. De Aquino. 2019. “Study of the reuse potential of the sisal fibers powder as a particulate material in polymer composites.” J. Mater. Res. Technol. 8 (5). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.07.010.
Meng, H., S. Shu, Y. Gao, B. Yan, and J. He. 2021. “Multiple-phase enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) method for soil improvement.” Eng. Geol. 294 (Dec): 106374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106374.
Minto, J. M., Q. Tan, R. J. Lunn, G. El Mountassir, H. Guo, and X. Cheng. 2018. “‘Microbial mortal’-restoration of degraded marble structures with microbially induced carbonate precipitation.” Constr. Build. Mater. 180 (Aug): 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.200.
Mondal, S., and A. D. Ghosh. 2019. “Review on microbial induced calcite precipitation mechanisms leading to bacterial selection for microbial concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 225 (Nov): 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.122.
Neupane, D., H. Yasuhara, N. Kinoshita, and T. Unno. 2013. “Applicability of enzymatic calcium carbonate precipitation as a soil-strengthening technique.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139 (12): 2201–2211. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000959.
Phillips, A. J., R. Gerlach, E. Lauchnor, A. C. Mitchell, A. B. Cunningham, and L. Spangler. 2013. “Engineered applications of ureolytic biomineralization: A review.” Biofouling 29 (6): 715–733. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2013.796550.
Qiu, R., H. Tong, X. Fang, Y. Liao, and Y. Li. 2019. “Analysis of strength characteristics of carbon fiber–reinforced microbial solidified sand.” Adv. Mech. Eng. 11 (11): 168781401988442. https://doi.org/10.1177/1687814019884420.
Qiu, R., H. Tong, M. Gu, and J. Yuan. 2020. “Strength and micromechanism analysis of microbial solidified sand with carbon fiber.” Adv. Civ. Eng. 8 (6): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8876617.
Senthilkumar, K., N. Saba, N. Rajini, M. Chandrasekar, M. Jawaid, S. Siengchin, and O. Y. Alotman. 2018. “Mechanical properties evaluation of sisal fiber reinforced polymer composites: A review.” Constr. Build. Mater. 174: 713–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.143.
Sharma, A. K., S. Prasannan, and S. Kolathayar. 2019. “Comparative study of sisal and PVA fiber for soil improvement.” In Proc., Eighth Int. Conf. on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering. Philadelphia, PA: Geocongress.
Spencer, C. A., and H. Sass. 2019. “Use of carrier materials to immobilise and supply cementation medium for microbially mediated self-healing of biocement.” IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 660 (1): 012067. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/660/1/012067.
Sun, X., L. Miao, and C. Wang. 2019. “Glucose addition improves the bio-remediation efficiency for crack repair.” Mater. Struct. 52 (6): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-019-1410-5.
Sun, X., L. Miao, J. Yuan, H. Wang, and L. Wu. 2021. “Application of enzymatic calcification for dust control and rainfall erosion resistance improvement.” Sci. Total Environ. 759 (Mar): 143468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143468.
Tang, C.-S., L.-Y. Yin, N.-J. Jiang, C. Zhu, H. Zeng, H. Li, and B. Shi. 2020. “Factors affecting the performance of microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) treated soil: A review.” Environ. Earth Sci. 79 (5): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-8840-9.
Wei, J., and C. Meyer. 2016. “Utilization of rice husk ash in green natural fiber-reinforced cement composites: Mitigating degradation of sisal fiber.” Cem. Concr. Res. 81: 94–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.12.001.
Wen, K., C. Bu, S. Liu, Y. Li, and L. Li. 2018. “Experimental investigation of flexure resistance performance of bio-beams reinforced with discrete randomly distributed fiber and bamboo.” Constr. Build. Mater. 176 (Jul): 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.032.
Whiffin, V. 2004. “Microbial CaCO3 precipitation for the production of biocement.” Ph.D. thesis, School of Minerals and Energy, Murdoch Univ.
Wu, S., B. Li, and J. Chu. 2021. “Stress-dilatancy behavior of MICP-treated sand.” Int. J. Geomech. 21 (3): 04020264. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001923.
Xiao, P., H. Liu, Y. Xiao, A. W. Stuedlein, and T. M. Evans. 2018. “Liquefaction resistance of bio-cemented calcareous sand.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 107 (Apr): 9–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.01.008.
Xiao, Y., H. Chen, A. W. Stuedlein, T. M. Evans, J. Chu, L. Cheng, N. Jiang, H. Lin, H. Liu, and H. M. Aboel-Naga. 2020. “Restraint of particle breakage by biotreatment method.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 146 (11): 04020123. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002384.
Xiao, Y., X. He, T. M. Evans, A. W. Stuedlein, and H. Liu. 2019. “Unconfined compressive and splitting tensile strength of basalt fiber–reinforced biocemented sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 145 (9): 04019048. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002108.
Yao, D., J. Wu, G. Wang, P. Wang, J. J. Zheng, J. Yan, L. Xu, and Y. Yan. 2021. “Effect of wool fiber addition on the reinforcement of loose sands by microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP): Mechanical property and underlying mechanism.” Acta Geotech. 16 (5): 1401–1416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-020-01112-6.
Yuan, H., K. Liu, C. Zhang, and Z. Zhao. 2022. “Mechanical properties of Na-montmorillonite-modified EICP-treated silty sand.” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29 (7): 10332–10344. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16442-5.
Zhao, Y., C. Fan, F. Ge, X. Cheng, and P. Liu. 2020a. “Enhancing strength of MICP-treated sand with scrap of activated carbon-fiber felt.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 32 (4): 04020061. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003136.
Zhao, Y., Z. Xiao, C. Fan, W. Shen, Q. Wang, and P. Liu. 2020b. “Comparative mechanical behaviors of four fiber-reinforced sand cemented by microbially induced carbonate precipitation.” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 79 (6): 3075–3086. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01756-4.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 35 • Issue 5 • May 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 28, 2022
Accepted: Aug 17, 2022
Published online: Feb 23, 2023
Published in print: May 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Jul 23, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.