Rebuilding Syria from the Rubble: Recycled Concrete Aggregate from War-Destroyed Buildings
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 35, Issue 4
Abstract
The ongoing Syrian civil war began in 2011 and has left more than 130,000 buildings destroyed, 70% of which are RC buildings. When the war is over, it is estimated that the millions of displaced refugees will return within 8 years, thus requiring a rapid urban redevelopment of the country. This study examined the feasibility of reusing concrete from destroyed buildings as recycled concrete aggregate (RCA), and will assist in developing much-needed recommendations for the sustainable redevelopment of Syria’s infrastructure. Although the concept of RCA is not specifically novel, the properties of RCA generated from different sources must be assessed thoroughly to confirm its reuse potential. Never has demolished concrete been so widely available as it is now in parts of Syria, rendering the potential impact of this work enormous. In this study, simple and established methods were implemented to collect and test materials, to simulate more closely real-life scenarios of when the country’s reconstruction is to start. The chemical and physical properties of the aggregate were measured, followed by the determination of fresh and hardened properties of the concrete produced using a mixture of RCA and natural aggregates. For the first time, this study provides evidence that RCA from the rubble of war-destroyed Syrian buildings can be immediately valorized as a sustainable alternative to natural coarse aggregates in concrete; up to 50% replacement can be achieved without significantly affecting the performance of the new concrete.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
We thank CARA (https://www.cara.ngo/) because this work would not have been possible without their financial support, and the input of Kate Robertson (CARA) and Dr. David Read (University of Sheffield) in particular. We are especially indebted to Dr. Oday Hussein, Dr. Sarah Kearney, Dr. Daniel Geddes, Chun Long Woo, Dr. Martin Stennett, and Dr. Nik Reeves-McLaren from the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, who conducted many mineralogical tests. We are grateful to students from Sham University who helped us in collecting RCA samples: Ibrahim Al sheikh Saleh, Mohamed Al-Khateeb, and Said Othman. Sample collection was conducted under the University of Sheffield ethics approval Reference 024525.
References
Alexanderson, J. 1971. “Design of concrete mixes.” Matériaux et Constr./Mater. Struct. 4 (4): 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02478946.
Anastasiou, E., M. Papachristoforou, D. Anesiadis, K. Zafeiridis, and E.-C. Tsardaka. 2018. “Investigation of the use of recycled concrete aggregates originating from a single ready-mix concrete plant.” Appl. Sci. 8 (11): 2149. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8112149.
ASTM International. 1997. Standard test method for density, absorption, and voids in hardened concrete. ASTM C642-97. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2001a. Standard test method for density (unit weight), yield, and air content (gravimetric). ASTM C138/C138M-01a. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2001b. Standard test method for sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates. ASTM C136-01. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2001c. Standard test method for specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate. ASTM C127-01. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2002a. Standard test method for flexural strength of concrete (using simple beam with third-point loading). ASTM C293-02. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2002b. Standard test method for splitting tensile strength of cylindrical concrete. ASTM C496/C496M-02. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2002c. Standard test method for static modulus of elasticity and poisson’s ratio of concrete. ASTM C469-02. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2003a. Standard test method for resistance to degradation of small-size coarse aggregate by abrasion and impact in the Los Angeles machine. ASTM C131-03. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2003b. Standard test method for slump of hydraulic-cement concrete. ASTM C143/C143M-03. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2012. Standard test method for electrical indication of concrete’s ability to resist chloride ion penetration. ASTM C1202. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2013. Standard test method for measurement of rate of absorption of water by hydraulic cement concretes. ASTM C1585-13. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2018a. Standard test method for compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens. ASTM C39/C39M-18. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM International. 2018b. Standard test method for rebound number of hardened concrete. ASTM C805/C805M-1. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Brand, A. S., J. R. Roesler, and A. Salas. 2015. “Initial moisture and mixing effects on higher quality recycled coarse aggregate concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 79 (Mar): 83–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.01.047.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2003. Depth of penetration of water under pressure. BS EN 12390-8:2000. London: BSI.
Bui, N. K., T. Satomi, and H. Takahashi. 2017. “Improvement of mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete basing on a new combination method between recycled aggregate and natural aggregate.” Constr. Build. Mater. 148 (Sep): 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.084.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2011. Cement–Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements. EN 197-1:2011. Brussels, Belgium: CEN.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2013. Aggregates for concrete. EN 12620:2013. Brussels, Belgium: CEN.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2016. Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity. EN 206:2013+A1:2016. Brussels, Belgium: CEN.
Cheng, G.-Y. 2005. “Experimental study on the basic performance of recycled aggregate concrete with different displacement ratio.” Chin. Concr. J. 11: 67–70.
Cheung, F., A. Kube, L. Tay, E. Diener, J. J. Jackson, R. E. Lucas, M. Y. Ni, and G. M. Leung. 2020. “The impact of the Syrian conflict on population well-being.” Nat. Commun. 11 (1): 3899. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17369-0.
Dilbas, H., M. Şimşek, and Ö. Çakır. 2014. “An investigation on mechnical and physical properties of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) with and without silica fume.” Constr. Build. Mater. 61 (Jun): 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.02.057.
Eguchi, K., K. Teranishi, A. Nakagome, H. Kishimoto, K. Shinozaki, and M. Narikawa. 2007. “Application of recycled coarse aggregate by mixture to concrete construction.” Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (7): 1542–1551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.12.023.
Evangelista, L., and J. de Brito. 2010. “Durability performance of concrete made with fine recycled concrete aggregates.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 32 (1): 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.09.005.
Frondistou-Yannas, S. 1977. “Waste concrete as aggregate for new concrete.” ACI J. Proc. 78 (8): 373–376.
Guo, H., C. Shi, X. Guan, J. Zhu, Y. Ding, T.-C. Ling, H. Zhang, and Y. Wang. 2018. “Durability of recycled aggregate concrete—A review.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 89 (May): 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.03.008.
Hansen, T. C., and E. Boegh. 1985. “Elasticity and drying shrinkage of recycled-aggregate concrete.” ACI J. Proc. 82 (5): 648–652.
Huda, S. B., and M. S. Alam. 2014. “Mechanical behavior of three generations of 100% repeated recycled coarse aggregate concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 65 (Aug): 574–582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.010.
ISO. 2009. Testing of concrete—Part 8: Determination of drying shrinkage of concrete for samples prepared in the field or in the laboratory. ISO 1920-8:2009. Geneva: ISO.
Kou, S.-C., and C.-S. Poon. 2008. “Mechanical properties of 5-year-old concrete prepared with recycled aggregates obtained from three different sources.” Mag. Concr. Res. 60 (1): 57–64. https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.2007.00052.
Kou, S.-C., C.-S. Poon, and H.-W. Wan. 2012. “Properties of concrete prepared with low-grade recycled aggregates.” Constr. Build. Mater. 36 (Nov): 881–889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.06.060.
Kurda, R., J. de Brito, and J. D. Silvestre. 2019. “Water absorption and electrical resistivity of concrete with recycled concrete aggregates and fly ash.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 95 (Jan): 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.10.004.
Limbachiya, M. C., T. Leelawat, and R. K. Dhir. 2000. “Use of recycled concrete aggregate in high-strength concrete.” Mater. Struct. 33 (9): 574–580. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02480538.
LNEC (Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil). 2009. Guia para a utilização de agregados reciclados em camadas não ligadas de pavimentos. LNEC E473-2009. Lisbon, Portugal: LNEC.
Matias, D., J. de Brito, A. Rosa, and D. Pedro. 2013. “Mechanical properties of concrete produced with recycled coarse aggregates—Influence of the use of superplasticizers.” Constr. Build. Mater. 44 (Jul): 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.011.
Mehta, P. K., and P. J. M. Monteiro. 2006. Concrete: Microstructure, properties, and materials. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Qudsi, J. 2017. Rebuilding old Aleppo—Postwar sustainable recovery and urban refugee resettlement. New York: New York Univ.
REACH. 2019. “Syrian cities damage atlas.” Accessed September 22, 2021. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/reach_thematic_assessment_syrian_cities_damage_atlas_march_2019_reduced_file_size_1.pdf.
Rodrigues, F., M. T. Carvalho, L. Evangelista, and J. de Brito. 2013. “Physical–chemical and mineralogical characterization of fine aggregates from construction and demolition waste recycling plants.” J. Cleaner Prod. 52 (Aug): 438–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.02.023.
Sagoe-Crentsil, K. K., T. Brown, and A. H. Taylor. 2001. “Performance of concrete made with commercially produced coarse recycled concrete aggregate.” Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (5): 707–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00476-2.
Scrivener, K. L., A. K. Crumbie, and P. Laugesen. 2004. “The interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between cement paste and aggregate in concrete.” Interface Sci. 12 (4): 411–421. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:INTS.0000042339.92990.4c.
Souche, J.-C., P. Devillers, M. Salgues, and E. Garcia Diaz. 2017. “Influence of recycled coarse aggregates on permeability of fresh concrete.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 83 (Oct): 394–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.08.002.
Sri Ravindrarajah, R., and C. T. Tam. 1985. “Properties of concrete made with crushed concrete as coarse aggregate.” Mag. Concr. Res. 37 (130): 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.1985.37.130.29.
Syrian Engineers Union. 2006. Appendix 1 for the Syrian Arab code for the design and implementation of reinforced concrete structures-loads on buildings. Damascus, Syria: Syrian Engineers Union.
Teychenné, D. C., R. E. Franklin, and H. C. Erntroy. 1997. Design of normal concrete mixes. BR331. 2nd ed. Bracknell, UK: IHS BRE Press.
Thomas, J., N. N. Thaickavil, and P. M. Wilson. 2018. “Strength and durability of concrete containing recycled concrete aggregates.” J. Build. Eng. 19 (Sep): 349–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.05.007.
Topçu, I. B., and S. Şengel. 2004. “Properties of concretes produced with waste concrete aggregate.” Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (8): 1307–1312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.12.019.
Volz, J., K. H. Khayat, M. Arezoumandi, J. Drury, S. Sadati, A. Smith, and A. Steele. 2014. Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for infrastructure elements. Jefferson City, MO: Missouri DOT.
Wang, H., X. Sun, J. Wang, and P. J. M. Monteiro. 2016. “Permeability of concrete with recycled concrete aggregate and pozzolanic materials under stress.” Materials 9 (4): 252. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9040252.
Wirquin, E., R. Hadjieva-Zaharieva, and F. Buyle-Bodin. 2000. “Utilisation de l’absorption d’eau des bétons comme critères de leur durabilité—Application aux bétons de granulats recycles. [Use of water absorption by concrete as a criterion of the durability of concrete-application to recycled aggregate concrete.]” Mater. Struct. 33 (6): 403–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02479650.
Xiao, J. 2018. Recycled aggregate concrete structures. Berlin: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53987-3.
Xiao, J., J. Li, and C. Zhang. 2005. “Mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete under uniaxial loading.” Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (6): 1187–1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.09.020.
Xiao, J., W. Li, Y. Fan, and X. Huang. 2012a. “An overview of study on recycled aggregate concrete in China (1996-2011).” Constr. Build. Mater. 31 (Jun): 364–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.074.
Xiao, J., W. Li, and C. Poon. 2012b. “Recent studies on mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete in China—A review.” Sci. China Technol. Sci. 55 (6): 1463–1480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-012-4786-9.
Xiao, J.-Z., and J. Li. 2005. “Study on relationships between strength indexes of recycled concrete.” J. Build. Mater. 8 (2): 197–201.
Xie, Y., D. J. Corr, F. Jin, H. Zhou, and S. P. Shah. 2015. “Experimental study of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) of model rock-filled concrete (RFC).” Cem. Concr. Compos. 55 (Jan): 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.09.002.
Zhang, J., H. Du, C. Zhang, and Q. Li. 2009. “Influence of mineral admixture and recycled aggregate on shrinkage of concrete.” J. Qingdao Technol. Univ. 34 (4): 145–149.
Zhu, L., and W. Jin. 2010. “The study on early drying shrinkage of recycled aggregate concrete.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Waste Engineering and Management—ICWEM 2010, 568–575. Paris, France: RILEM.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 35 • Issue 4 • April 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Dec 2, 2021
Accepted: Jul 1, 2022
Published online: Jan 18, 2023
Published in print: Apr 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Jun 18, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.