Experimental and Numerical Investigations on the Rate-Limiting Step for Macrocell Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 34, Issue 1
Abstract
Macrocell corrosion is a frequent and detrimental problem plaguing reinforced concrete structures exposed to chloride environments. This paper investigates the rate-limiting step(s) of macrocell corrosion of reinforcing steel bars in concrete by quantifying the respective contributions of anodic polarization, cathodic polarization, and ohmic subprocesses to the overall macrocell corrosion. Experiments were carried out to study the impact of the distance between active and passive steels, the active-to-passive steel area ratio (A/P), and the microcell corrosion rate of active steel. Numerical simulations were further performed to extrapolate experimental results to large-scale concrete structures. Results demonstrated that with a decreasing A/P, the contribution of the anodic polarization subprocess was increased, while that of the cathodic polarization subprocess was decreased. The macrocell effect that aggravated the total corrosion rate of active steel was weakened as the microcell corrosion activity increased or with increasing the relative humidity.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) (Grant No. 2015CB655103), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51320105013), as well as the Corrosion Research Laboratory (CorRLab) at Clemson University.
References
Ahlström, J., J. Tidblad, B. Sederholm, and L. Wadsö. 2016. “Influence of chloride and moisture content on steel rebar corrosion in concrete.” Mater. Corros. 67 (10): 1049–1058. https://doi.org/10.1002/maco.201508799.
Alonso, C., C. Andrade, M. Izquierdo, X. R. Nóvoa, and M. C. Pérez. 1998. “Effect of protective oxide scales in the macrogalvanic behaviour of concrete reinforcements.” Corros. Sci. 40 (8): 1379–1389. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-938X(98)00040-7.
Andrade, C., and C. Alonso. 1996. “Corrosion rate monitoring in the laboratory and on-site.” Constr. Build. Mater. 10 (5): 315–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/0950-0618(95)00044-5.
Andrade, C., and R. Andrea. 2010. “Electrical resistivity as microstructural parameter for modelling of service life of reinforced concrete structures.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Symp. Service Life Design Infrastructure, 379–388. Delft, Netherlands: RILEM.
Andrade, C., P. Garcés, and I. Martínez. 2008. “Galvanic currents and corrosion rates of reinforcements measured in cells simulating different pitting areas caused by chloride attack in sodium hydroxide.” Corros. Sci. 50 (10): 2959–2964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2008.07.013.
Andrade, C., I. R. Maribona, S. Feliu, J. A. González, and S. Feliu. 1992. “The effect of macrocells between active and passive areas of steel reinforcements.” Corros. Sci. 33 (2): 237–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-938X(92)90148-V.
Angst, U., B. Elsener, C. K. Larsen, and Ø. Vennesland. 2011a. “Chloride induced reinforcement corrosion: Rate limiting step of early pitting corrosion.” Electrochim. Acta 56 (17): 5877–5889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2011.04.124.
Angst, U. M., B. Elsener, C. K. Larsen, and Ø. Vennesland. 2011b. “Chloride induced reinforcement corrosion: Electrochemical monitoring of initiation stage and chloride threshold values.” Corros. Sci. 53 (4): 1451–1464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2011.01.025.
ASTM. 2017. Standard reference test method for making potentiodynamic anodic polarization measurements. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bertolini, L., B. Elsener, P. Pedeferri, E. Redaelli, and R. B. Polder. 2013. Corrosion of steel in concrete: Prevention, diagnosis, repair. New York: Wiley.
Cao, C. 2014. “3D simulation of localized steel corrosion in chloride contaminated reinforced concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 72 (9): 434–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.09.030.
Cao, C., M. M. S. Cheung, and B. Y. B. Chan. 2013. “Modelling of interaction between corrosion-induced concrete cover crack and steel corrosion rate.” Corros. Sci. 69 (24): 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2012.11.028.
Chang, Z. T., B. Cherry, and M. Marosszeky. 2008. “Polarisation behaviour of steel bar samples in concrete in seawater. Part 1: Experimental measurement of polarisation curves of steel in concrete.” Corros. Sci. 50 (2): 357–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2007.08.009.
Chen, F., H. Baji, C. Q. Li, I. Lau, and B. Ma. 2020. “Modeling the microstructure at steel–concrete interface in reinforced concrete.” Struct. Concr. 21 (3): 1093–1105. https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.201900273.
Cheung, M. M. S., and C. Cao. 2013. “Application of cathodic protection for controlling macrocell corrosion in chloride contaminated RC structures.” Constr. Build. Mater. 45 (Aug): 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.04.010.
Dong, Z., and A. Poursaee. 2020. “Corrosion behavior of coupled active and passive reinforcing steels in simulated concrete pore solution.” Constr. Build. Mater. 240 (Apr): 117955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117955.
Dong, Z., H. Torbati-Sarraf, H. Z. Hussein, and A. Poursaee. 2021. “Harmonic analysis on the effect of potential perturbations and electrodes arrangements on the electrochemical impedance (EIS) measurement of cementitious material.” Constr. Build. Mater. 273 (Mar): 121701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121701.
DuraCrete. 2000. General guidelines for durability design and redesign. Gouda, Netherlands: COWI Consulting Engineering and Planners.
Gu, X.-L., Z. Dong, Q. Yuan, and W.-P. Zhang. 2020. “Corrosion of stirrups under different relative humidity conditions in concrete exposed to chloride environment.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 32 (1): 04019329. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003001.
Gulikers, J., and M. Raupach. 2006. “Numerical models for the propagation period of reinforcement corrosion—Comparison of a case study calculated by different researchers.” Mater. Corros. 57 (8): 618–627. https://doi.org/10.1002/maco.200603993.
Gulikers, J. J. W. 1996. “Experimental investigations on macrocell corrosion in chloride-contaminated concrete.” Heron 41 (2): 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079196.
Hansson, C. M., A. Poursaee, and A. Laurent. 2006. “Macrocell and microcell corrosion of steel in ordinary portland cement and high performance concretes.” Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (11): 2098–2102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.07.005.
He, R., H. Ma, R. B. Hafiz, C. Fu, X. Jin, and J. He. 2018. “Determining porosity and pore network connectivity of cement-based materials by a modified non-contact electrical resistivity measurement: Experiment and theory.” Mater. Des. 156 (12): 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2018.06.045.
Hornbostel, K., U. M. Angst, B. Elsener, C. K. Larsen, and M. R. Geiker. 2016. “Influence of mortar resistivity on the rate-limiting step of chloride-induced macro-cell corrosion of reinforcing steel.” Corros. Sci. 110 (Sep): 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2016.04.011.
Jiang, J., and Y. Yuan. 2012. “Prediction model for the time-varying corrosion rate of rebar based on micro-environment in concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 35 (Oct): 625–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.077.
Jones, D. A. 1996. Principles and prevention of corrosion. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kang, B., and H. Shim. 2011. “Two dimensional chloride ion diffusion in reinforced concrete structures for railway.” Int. J. Railway 4 (4): 86–92.
Kere, K. J., and Q. Huang. 2019. “Life-cycle cost comparison of corrosion management strategies for steel bridges.” J. Bridge Eng. 24 (4): 04019007. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001361.
Laurens, S., P. Hénocq, N. Rouleau, F. Deby, E. Samson, J. Marchand, and B. Bissonnette. 2016. “Steady-state polarization response of chloride-induced macrocell corrosion systems in steel reinforced concrete—Numerical and experimental investigations.” Cem. Concr. Res. 79 (Jan): 272–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.09.021.
Liu, T., and R. Weyers. 1998. “Modeling the dynamic corrosion process in chloride contaminated concrete structures.” Cem. Concr. Res. 28 (3): 365–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00259-2.
Nasser, A., and A. Castel. 2014. “Microcell versus galvanic corrosion currents in carbonated concrete.” Mag. Concr. Res. 66 (14): 697–707. https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.13.00214.
Néstor, P. 2004. Electrochemistry and corrosion science. New York: Kluwer Academic.
Otieno, M., H. Beushausen, and M. Alexander. 2016. “Chloride-induced corrosion of steel in cracked concrete—Part II: Corrosion rate prediction models.” Cem. Concr. Res. 79 (Jan): 386–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.08.008.
Papadakis, V. G., C. G. Vayenas, and M. N. Fardis. 1992. “Physical and chemical characteristics affecting the durability of concrete.” ACI Mater. J. 8 (2): 186–196.
Poursaee, A. 2010. “Determining the appropriate scan rate to perform cyclic polarization test on the steel bars in concrete.” Electrochim. Acta 55 (3): 1200–1206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2009.10.004.
Poursaee, A. 2016. Corrosion of steel in concrete structures. Sawston, UK: Wood Head Publishing.
Raupach, M., and J. Gulikers. 2001. “Investigations on cathodic control of chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion.” In Vol. 31 of Proc., EUROCORR 1999, 13–23. Brussels, Belgium: European Federation of Corrosion.
Revert, A. B., K. Hornbostel, K. De Weerdt, and M. R. Geiker. 2019. “Macrocell corrosion in carbonated portland and portland-fly ash concrete—Contribution and mechanism.” Cem. Concr. Res. 116 (Feb): 273–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.12.005.
Rodríguez, P. 1999. “Significance of coplanar macrocells to corrosion in concrete-embedded steel.” Corrosion 55 (3): 319–325. https://doi.org/10.5006/1.3283994.
Soleimani, S., P. Ghods, O. B. Isgor, and J. Zhang. 2010. “Modeling the kinetics of corrosion in concrete patch repairs and identification of governing parameters.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 32 (5): 360–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2010.02.001.
Song, X., and X. Liu. 2000. “Experimental research on corrosion of reinforcement in concrete through cathode-to-anode area ratio.” ACI Struct. J. 97 (2): 148–155.
Sun, B., R.-C. Xiao, J. Guo, and Q. Zhao. 2019. “Probabilistic chloride penetration models and corrosion initiation probability of RC bridge based on long-term test data.” J. Bridge Eng. 24 (4): 04019012. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001370.
Val, D. V., and P. A. Trapper. 2006. “Probabilistic evaluation of time to corrosion initiation in RC elements exposed to chlorides: 2-D modelling.” In Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. Bridge Maintenance, Safety Management—Bridge Maintenance, Safety, Management Life-Cycle Performance Cost, 527–528. London: CRC Press.
Val, D. V., and P. A. Trapper. 2008. “Probabilistic evaluation of initiation time of chloride-induced corrosion.” Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 93 (3): 364–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2006.12.010.
Warkus, J., and M. Raupach. 2008. “Numerical modelling of macrocells occurring during corrosion of steel in concrete.” Mater. Corros. 59 (2): 122–130. https://doi.org/10.1002/maco.200804164.
Warkus, J., and M. Raupach. 2010. “Modelling of reinforcement corrosion—Geometrical effects on macrocell corrosion.” Mater. Corros. 61 (6): 494–504. https://doi.org/10.1002/maco.200905437.
Yalçyn, H., and M. Ergun. 1996. “The prediction of corrosion rates of reinforcing steels in concrete.” Cem. Concr. Res. 26 (10): 1593–1599. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(96)00139-1.
Ye, Z., W. Zhang, X. Gu, and X. Liu. 2019. “Experimental investigation on shear fatigue behavior of reinforced concrete beams with corroded stirrups.” J. Bridge Eng. 24 (2): 04018117. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001350.
Yu, B., J. Liu, and B. Li. 2017. “Improved numerical model for steel reinforcement corrosion in concrete considering influences of temperature and relative humidity.” Constr. Build. Mater. 142 (2): 175–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.045.
Zakka, Z. G., and M. Otieno. 2018. “Corrosion of steel in concrete due to one and two dimensional chloride ingress.” MATEC Web Conf. 199 (1): 04004. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201819904004.
Zakka, Z. G., and M. B. Otieno. 2017. “Influence of 2D chloride ingress on corrosion initiation and propagation in cracked and uncracked concrete: A critical literature review.” In Proc., 71st RILEM Annual Week & ICACMS 2017, 477–484. Paris: RILEM.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 34 • Issue 1 • January 2022
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 9, 2021
Accepted: May 25, 2021
Published online: Oct 27, 2021
Published in print: Jan 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Mar 27, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Qifang Liu, Guangda Pei, Lijie Chen, Kang Duan, Fengling Zhang, Ray Kai-Leung Su, Effects of Chloride, Humidity, and Concrete Mix on the Electrochemical Parameters of Steel Reinforcement Corrosion, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-17914, 36, 8, (2024).
- Zhi-Hao Jin, Chao Jiang, Xiang-Lin Gu, Zheng Dong, Corrosion Behavior of Coupled Steel Bars under Different Stress Levels in Simulated Concrete Pore Solutions, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-17032, 36, 4, (2024).
- Zhao Wang, Koichi Maekawa, Fuyuan Gong, Space Averaging of Electric Field accompanying Corrosion of Reinforcement and its Verification by Pseudo-Concrete, Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 10.3151/jact.21.25, 21, 1, (25-41), (2023).
- Zheng Dong, Chuanqing Fu, Chentao Lu, Xosé Ramón Nóvoa, Hailong Ye, Effect of Stress on the Critical Chloride Content of Steel Bar in Simulated Concrete Pore Solution, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-16037, 35, 10, (2023).
- Wei Gong, Nan Wang, Haiwei Zhu, Jun Xu, Haoxia Ma, Protection and Time-Varying Characteristic of Rebar Corrosion in Magnesium Oxychloride Cement Recycled Concrete under the Simulated Salt Lake Environment, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-15834, 35, 9, (2023).
- Teng Wu, Jie Qin, Xuesen Zhang, Shuai Qu, Xingguo Feng, Runzhuo Guo, Galvanic Corrosion of Mill-Scaled Carbon Steel Coupled to AISI 304 Stainless Steel in the Chloride-Contaminated Mortars, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004722, 35, 5, (2023).
- Qihui Wang, Xiaodi Wu, Huahao Zheng, Li Liu, Qi Zhang, Aomei Zhang, Zhitao Yan, Yi Sun, Zuojin Li, Xueming Li, Evaluation for Fatsia japonica leaves extract (FJLE) as green corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel in simulated concrete pore solutions, Journal of Building Engineering, 10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105568, 63, (105568), (2023).
- Kai Tong, Jianting Zhou, Xiaotao Ma, Huajian Ying, Ruiqiang Zhao, Investigation of the effect of initial magnetization state on the force-magnetic coupling effect of rebars, Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, 10.1016/j.jmmm.2023.170382, 569, (170382), (2023).
- Zheng Dong, Chuanqing Fu, Amir Poursaee, Galvanic Corrosion Study between Tensile-Stressed and Non-Stressed Carbon Steels in Simulated Concrete Pore Solution, Metals, 10.3390/met12010098, 12, 1, (98), (2022).
- Yao Lv, Ditao Niu, Xiguang Liu, Yue-Chen Li, Corrosion Damage and Life Prediction of Concrete Structure in a 41-Year-Old Steelworks, Materials, 10.3390/ma15175893, 15, 17, (5893), (2022).
- See more