Mechanical and Environmental Suitability of Recycled Concrete Aggregate as a Highway Base Material
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 28, Issue 9
Abstract
The use of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) materials in highway constructions is economically viable and reduces virgin natural resource demands on the environment. To evaluate their potential use in highway construction, two different RCA materials and four virgin granular aggregate base (GAB) materials and their select mixtures were tested in the laboratory for strength, resilient modulus, permanent deformation, and durability. Laboratory water leach tests and pH-dependent leaching tests were conducted to determine the environmental suitability of the RCA materials. The leaching behavior of Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, and Zn and the effects of pH, curing time, liquid-to-solid () ratio, and particle size on metal leaching from the RCAs were investigated. Summary resilient moduli () of the RCAs were up to 2.6 times higher than that of the GAB materials. Their stiffness also increased when subjected to freezing and thawing cycles. Consistent trends could not be observed with percent RCA addition and strength or ; however, the RCAs generally yielded higher permanent deformations compared with the GABs. Prolonged curing caused rehydration of cement particles and, in general, yielded a decrease in pH and leached metal concentrations. Increasing the ratio decreased leaching of elements significantly because of the dilution of leached elements in the aqueous solutions. pH excursions yielded cationic leaching patterns for Ca and amphoteric leaching patterns for Cr, Cu, Zn, and Fe.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by the Maryland State Highway Administration (SHA), South Dakota DOT, and Istanbul Technical University (ITU). The findings and opinions in this report are solely those of the authors. Endorsement by SHA and ITU is not implied and should not be assumed.
References
AASHTO. (1993). AASHTO guide for design of pavement structures, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. (2004). “Standard specification for materials for aggregate and soil-aggregate subbase, base, and surface courses.” AASHTO M147-65, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. (2007). “Determining the resilient modulus of soils and aggregate materials.” AASHTO T307-99, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. (2008). “Standard specification for classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway construction purposes.” AASHTO M145-91, Washington, DC.
Apul, D. S., Gardner, K. H., Eighmy, T. T., Fallman, A.-M., and Comans, R. N. J. (2005). “Simultaneous application of dissolution/precipitation and surface complexation/surface precipitation modeling to contaminant leaching.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 39(15), 5736–5741.
Arm, M. (2001). “Self-cementing properties of crushed demolished concrete in unbound layers: Results from triaxial tests and field tests.” Waste Manage., 21(3), 235–239.
ASTM. (2008). “Standard test methods for determination of maximum dry unit weight and water content range for effective compaction of granular soils using a vibrating hammer.” ASTM D7382, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. (2009). “Standard test methods for single batch extraction method for wastes.” ASTM D5233, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. (2014). “Standard test method for California bearing ratio (CBR) of laboratory-compacted soils.” ASTM D1883, West Conshohocken, PA.
Bennert, T., Papp, W. J., Jr.,Maher, A., and Gucunski, N. (2000). “Utilization of construction and demolition debris under traffic-type loading in base and subbase applications.” Transp. Res. Rec., 1714, 33–39.
Bozyurt, O., Keene, A., Tinjum, J. M., and Edil, T. B. (2012). “Freeze-thaw effects on stiffness of unbound recycled road base.” Proc., 91st Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Bullard, J. W., et al. (2011). “Mechanisms of cement hydration.” Cem. Concr. Res., 41(12), 1208–1223.
Cetin, A., Kaya, Z., Cetin, B., and Aydilek, A. H. (2014a). “Influence of compaction method on mechanical properties of unbound granular materials.” Road Mater. Pavement Des., 15(1), 220–235.
Cetin, B., Aydilek, A. H., and Guney, Y. (2010). “Stabilization of recycled base materials with high carbon fly ash.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 54(11), 878–892.
Cetin, B., Aydilek, A. H., and Guney, Y. (2012a). “Leaching of trace metals from high carbon fly ash stabilized highway base layers.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 58, 8–17.
Cetin, B., Aydilek, A. H., and Li, L. (2012b). “Experimental and numerical analysis of metal leaching from fly ash-amended highway bases.” Waste Manage., 32(5), 965–978.
Cetin, B., Aydilek, A. H., and Li, L. (2014b). “Trace metal leaching from embankment soils amended with high-carbon fly ash.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1–13.
Chen, J., Bradshaw, S., Benson, C. H., Tinjum, J. M., and Edil, T. B. (2012). “pH-dependent leaching of trace elements from recycled concrete aggregate.” Proc., Geocongress 2012, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Chen, J., Tinjum, J. M., and Edil, T. B. (2013). “Leaching of alkaline substances and heavy metals from recycled concrete aggregate used as unbound base course.” Transp. Res. Rec., 2349, 81–90.
Cornelis, G., Johnson, C. A., Gerven, T. V., and Vandecasteele, C. (2008). “Leaching mechanisms of oxyanionic metalloid and metal species in alkaline solid wastes: A review.” Appl. Geochem., 23(5), 955–976.
Edil, T. B. (2012). “Recycled unbound materials.”, Minnesota DOT, St. Paul, MN.
Engelsen, C. J., van der Sloot, H. A., Wibetoe, G., Justnes, H., Lund, W., and Stoltenberg-Hansson, E. (2010). “Leaching characterisation and geochemical modelling of minor and trace elements released from recycled concrete aggregates.” Cem. Concr. Res., 40(12), 1639–1649.
Engelsen, C. J., van der Sloot, H. A., Wibetoe, G., Petkovic, G., Stoltenberg-Hansson, E., and Lund, W. (2009). “Release of major elements from recycled concrete aggregates and geochemical modelling.” Cem. Concr. Res., 39(5), 446–459.
EPA. (2009). “Water drinking limits.” 〈http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/〉 (Nov. 20, 2015).
FHWA (Federal Highway Administration). (2008). “User guideline for byproducts and secondary use materials in pavement construction.”, McLean, VA.
Garrabrants, A. C., Sanchez, F., and Kosson, D. S. (2004). “Changes in constituent equilibrium leaching and pore water characteristics of a portland cement mortar as a result of carbonation.” Waste Manage., 24(1), 19–36.
Gervais, C., Garrabrants, A. C., Sanchez, F., Barna, R., Moszkowicz, P., and Kosson, D. S. (2004). “The effects of carbonation and drying during intermittent leaching on the release of inorganic constituents from a cement-based matrix.” Cem. Concr. Res., 34(1), 119–131.
Gitari, W. M., Petrik, L. F., Etchebers, O., Key, D. L., and Okujeni, C. (2008). “Utilization of fly ash for treatment of coal mines wastewater: Solubility controls on major inorganic contaminants.” Fuel, 87(12), 2450–2462.
Goswami, R. K., and Mahanta, C. (2007). “Leaching characteristics of residual lateritic soils stabilised with fly ash and lime for geotechnical applications.” Waste Manage., 27(4), 466–481.
Haider, I. (2013). “Geomechanical and hydraulic behavior of Maryland graded aggregate base materials.” M.S. thesis, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Haider, I., Kaya, Z., Cetin, A., Hatipoglu, M., Cetin, B., and Aydilek, A. H. (2014). “Drainage and mechanical behavior of highway base materials.” J. Irrig. Drain. Eng., 04014012.
Hoyos, L., Puppala, A., and Ordonez, C. (2011). “Characterization of cement-fiber-treated reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregates: Preliminary investigation.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 977–989.
Huang, Y. H. (1993). Pavement analysis and design, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Kazmee, H., Tutumluer, E., and Mishra, D. (2012). “Effects of material blending on strength, modulus and deformation characteristics of recycled concrete aggregates.” Proc., 91st Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Komonweeraket, K., Cetin, B., Aydilek, A. H., Benson, C. H., and Edil, T. B. (2015). “Effects of pH on the leaching mechanisms of elements from fly ash mixed soils.” Fuel, 140, 788–802.
Komonweeraket, K., Cetin, B., Benson, C. H., Aydilek, A. H., and Edil, T. B. (2014). “Leaching characteristics of toxic constituents from coal fly ash mixed soils under the influence of pH.” Waste Manage., 38, 174–184.
Kosson, D. S., van der Sloot, H., Sanchez, F., and Garrabrants, A. C. (2002). “An integrated framework for evaluating leaching in waste management and utilization of secondary materials.” Environ. Eng. Sci., 19(3), 159–204.
Kuo, S.-S, Mahgoub, H. S., and Nazef, A. (2002). “Investigation of recycled concrete made with limestone aggregate for a base course in flexible pavement.” Transp. Res. Rec., 1787, 99–108.
Lee, J., Edil, T. B., Tinjum, J. M., and Benson, C. H. (2010). “Quantitative assessment of environmental and economic benefits of using recycled construction materials in highway construction.” Transp. Res. Rec., 2158, 138–142.
Leigh, N. G., and Patterson, L. M. (2004). “Construction and demolition debris recycling for environmental protection and economic development.”, Southeast Regional Environmental Finance Center, Univ. of Louisville, Louisville, KY.
Mamlouk, M. S., and Zaniewski, J. P. (2011). Materials for civil and construction engineers, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Mandal, S., Chakarborty, S., and Gupta, A. (2002). “Some studies on durability of recycled concrete aggregate concrete.” Indian Concr. J., 76(6), 385–388.
MDSHA (Maryland State Highway Administration). (2013). “Maryland roadway design manual.” 〈http://www.roads.maryland.gov/m/index.aspx?PageId=453〉 (Nov. 20, 2015).
Mishra, D., and Tutumluer, E. (2012). “Aggregate physical properties affecting modulus and deformation chracteristics of unsurfaced pavements.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 1144–1152.
Mulugeta, M., Wibetoe, G., Engelsen, C. J., and Lund, W. (2010). “Overcoming matrix interferences in ion-exchange solid phase extraction of As, Cr, Mo, Sb, Se and V species from leachates of cement-based materials using multiple extractions.” Talanta, 82(1), 158–163.
NCHRP (National Cooperative Highway Research Program). (1998). “Harmonized test methods for laboratory determination of resilient modulus for flexible pavement design.”, Washington, DC.
Poon, C. S., Qiao, X. C., and Chan, D. (2006). “The cause and influence of self-cementing properties of fine recycled concrete aggregates on the properties of unbound sub-base.” Waste Manage., 26(10), 1166–1172.
Puppala, A. J., Saride, S., and Williamson, R. (2012). “Sustainable reuse of limestone quarry fines and RAP in pavement base/subbase/layers.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 418–429.
Sanchez, F., Langley White, M. K., and Hoang, A. (2009). “Leaching from granular cement-based materials during infiltration/wetting coupled with freezing and thawing.” J. Environ. Manage., 90(2), 983–993.
Stolle, D., Guo, P., and Liu, Y. (2009). “Resilient modulus properties of granular highway materials.” Can. J. Civ. Eng., 36(4), 639–654.
Sweere, G. T. H. (1990). “Unbound granular basis for roads.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Delft, Delft, Netherlands.
Tutumluer, E., and Pan, T. (2008). “Aggregate morphology affecting strength and permanent deformation behavior of unbound aggregate materials.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 617–627.
U.S. EPA. (1991). “Methods for the determination of metals in environmental samples.” Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati.
Van Gerven, T., Cornelis, G., Vandoren, E., and Vandecasteele, C. (2007). “Effects of carbonation and leaching on porosity in cement-bound waste.” Waste Manage., 27(7), 977–985.
Wen, H., Martono, W., Edil, T. B., Clyne, R., and Patton, R. (2010). “Field evaluation of recycled pavement materials at MnROAD.” Proc., GeoCongress, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Witczak, M. W., and Uzan, J. (1988). “The universal airport pavement design system.”, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Yuan, D., Hoyos, L. R., and Puppala, A. J. (2011). “Evaluation and mix design of cement-treated base materials with high RAP content.” 90th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 28 • Issue 9 • September 2016
Copyright
© 2016 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jun 17, 2015
Accepted: Dec 7, 2015
Published online: Mar 21, 2016
Discussion open until: Aug 21, 2016
Published in print: Sep 1, 2016
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.