Assessment of Clay Mineral Attenuation Capacity for Human Viral Pathogens
Publication: Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste
Volume 26, Issue 1
Abstract
The current practice of curbing the ill effects associated with the open dumping of biomedical waste (BMW) solely relies on incineration. However, the incineration of BMW and plastic-based medical gear is associated with severe health hazards due to toxic emissions. Many countries are resorting to incineration at unpermitted locations and open dumping due to the enormous surge in the generated BMW during the ongoing pandemic times. Such improper practice of incineration of BMW incineration and open dumping leads to significant environmental pollution. Therefore, an alternative and environmentally sustainable disposal facility is essential to avoid the negative effects of BMW disposal. In this study, the effectiveness of compacted clay-based barrier systems was explored, for the first time, for the encapsulation of virus-contaminated BMW. The model parameters essential for designing such exclusive BMW containment facilities, namely effective diffusion coefficient (De) and retardation factor (Rd) for different clay minerals, were evaluated. The evaluation was based on the limited available batch sorption test and free solution diffusion test data for various hazardous pathogens. The model parameters were utilized to understand the attenuation of viral pathogens (SARS-CoV, poliovirus, and reovirus) and bacteriophages (MS2 and φx-174) in montmorillonite and kaolinite mineral barriers. The selected pathogens were chosen such that they represented SARS-CoV-2 in terms of its surface characteristics. The results from the present study revealed that a 2- to 3- mm thick exclusive clay-based barrier system was sufficient to contain the studied pathogens and SARS-CoV-2 for 50 years.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
- c
- concentration of the virus at any time, t (pfu/mL);
- ce
- equilibrium liquid phase virus concentration (pfu/mL);
- c0
- initial concentration of the virus (pfu/mL);
- De
- effective diffusion coefficient (m2/s);
- D0
- free solution diffusion coefficient (mt/s);
- Kd
- distribution coefficient;
- kf
- relative retention capacity;
- n
- porosity;
- qe
- adsorbed virus per mass of the clay mineral (pfu/mg);
- Rd
- retardation factor;
- Vs
- volume of the suspension (mL);
- w
- mass of the adsorbent material (mg);
- x
- spatial distance;
- 1/n
- intensity of retention;
- ρd
- dry density (Mg/m3); and
- τ
- tortuosity.
References
Abduljauwad, S. N., T. Habib, and H. Ahmed. 2020. “Nano-clays as potential pseudo-antibodies for COVID-19.” Nanoscale Res. Lett. 15 (1): 173. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-020-03403-z.
Armanious, A., M. Aeppli, R. Jacak, D. Refardt, T. Sigstam, T. Kohn, and M. Sander. 2016. “Viruses at solid–water interfaces: A systematic assessment of interactions driving adsorption.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 50 (2): 732–743. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b04644.
Bharat, T. V. 2014. “Analytical model for 1-D contaminant diffusion through clay barriers.” Environ. Geotech. 1 (4): 210–221. https://doi.org/10.1680/envgeo.13.00035.
Bharat, T. V., and D. S. Das. 2017. “Physicochemical approach for analyzing equilibrium volume of clay sediments in salt solutions.” Appl. Clay Sci. 136: 164–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.11.021.
Bharat, T. V., P. Das, and V. Buragadda. 2019. “Specific ion effects on surrogate compatibility indices of bentonite for hydraulic barrier applications.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 13 (4): 360–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2017.1358411.
Boudreau, B. P. 1996. “The diffusive tortuosity of fine-grained unlithified sediments.” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 60 (16): 3139–3142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(96)00158-5.
Buchta, D., T. Fuzik, D. Hrebik, Y. Levdansky, L. Sukeník, L. Mukhamedova, J. Moravcová, R. Vácha, and P. Plevka. 2019. “Enterovirus particles expel capsid pentamers to enable genome release.” Nat. Commun. 10 (1): 1138. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09132-x.
Burge, W. D., and N. K. Enkiri. 1978. “Virus adsorption by five soils.” J. Environ. Qual. 7 (1): 73–76. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1978.00472425000700010015x.
Choudhury, C., and T. V. Bharat. 2018. “Wetting-induced collapse behavior of kaolinite: Influence of fabric and inundation pressure.” Can. Geotech. J. 55 (7): 956–967. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0297.
Chrysikopoulos, C. V., and V. I. Syngouna. 2012. “Attachment of bacteriophages MS2 and ΦX174 onto kaolinite and montmorillonite: Extended-DLVO interactions.” Colloids Surf., B 92: 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.11.028.
Clark, K. J., A. B. Sarr, P. G. Grant, T. D. Phillips, and G. N. Woode. 1998. “In vitro studies on the use of clay, clay minerals and charcoal to adsorb bovine rotavirus and bovine coronavirus.” Vet. Microbiol. 63 (2–4): 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(98)00241-7.
Costello, D. A., J. K. Millet, C.-Y. Hsia, G. R. Whittaker, and S. Daniel. 2013. “Single particle assay of coronavirus membrane fusion with proteinaceous receptor-embedded supported bilayers.” Biomaterials 34 (32): 7895–7904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.06.034.
Cui, Z., Z. Zhang, X. Zhang, J. Wen, Y. Zhou, and W. Xie. 2005. “Visualizing the dynamic behavior of poliovirus plus-strand RNA in living host cells.” Nucleic Acids Res. 33 (10): 3245–3252. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gki629.
Das, P., and T. V. Bharat. 2017. “Effect of counter ions on the diffusion characteristics of a compacted bentonite.” Indian Geotech. J. 47 (4): 477–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-017-0241-y.
Das, P., and T. V. Bharat. 2021. “Kaolin based protective barrier in municipal landfills against adverse chemo-mechanical loadings.” Sci. Rep. 11 (1): 10354. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-89787-z.
Das, P., S. R. Man Parvesh, and T. V. Bharat. 2019. “Experimental analysis of salt diffusion in compacted clays by through-diffusion and half cell technique.” In Vol. 16 of Geotechnical characterisation and geoenvironmental engineering. Lecture notes in civil engineering, edited by V. Stalin and M. Muttharam. 179–186. Singapore: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0899-4_22.
Das, P., and B. V. Tadikonda. 2020. “Bentonite clay: A potential natural sanitizer for preventing neurological disorders.” ACS Chem. Neurosci. 11 (20): 3188–3190. https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00609.
Freundlich, H. 1936. “Adsorptionstechnik. By Franz Krzil.” J. Phys. Chem. 40 (6): 857–858. https://doi.org/10.1021/j150375a022.
Gerba, C. P. 1984. “Applied and theoretical aspects of virus adsorption to surfaces.” Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 30: 133–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2164(08)70054-6.
Glasser, H., D. P. Y. Chang, and D. C. Hickman. 1991. “An analysis of biomedical waste incineration.” J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 41 (9): 1180–1188. https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.1991.10466913.
Gomatos, P. J., and I. Tamm. 1963. “The secondary structure of reovirus RNA.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 49 (5): 707–714. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.49.5.707.
Goyal, S. M., and C. P. Gerba. 1979. “Comparative adsorption of human enteroviruses, simian rotavirus, and selected bacteriophages to soils.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 38 (2): 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.38.2.241-247.1979.
Gupta, A., et al. 2020. “Extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19.” Nat. Med. 26 (7): 1017–1032. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0968-3.
Israelachvili, J. N. 2011. Intermolecular and surface forces. 3rd ed. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier/Academic Press.
Kau, P. M. H., P. J. Binning, P. W. Hitchcock, and D. W. Smith. 1999. “Experimental analysis of fluoride diffusion and sorption in clays.” J. Contam. Hydrol. 36 (1–2): 131–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7722(98)00140-5.
Kimura, M., Z.-J. Jia, N. Nakayama, and S. Asakawa. 2008. “Ecology of viruses in soils: Past, present and future perspectives.” Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 54 (1): 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-0765.2007.00197.x.
Klemeš, J. J., Y. V. Fan, R. R. Tan, and P. Jiang. 2020. “Minimising the present and future plastic waste, energy and environmental footprints related to COVID-19.” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 127: 109883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109883.
Lama, J., and L. Carrasco. 1995. “Mutations in the hydrophobic domain of poliovirus protein 3AB abrogate its permeabilizing activity.” FEBS Lett. 367 (1): 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-5793(95)00523-C.
Liemann, S., K. Chandran, T. S. Baker, M. L. Nibert, and S. C. Harrison. 2002. “Structure of the reovirus membrane-penetration protein, μ1, in a complex with Its protector protein, σ3.” Cell 108: 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(02)00612-8.
Lipson, S. M., and G. Stotzky. 1983. “Adsorption of reovirus to clay minerals: Effects of cationexchange capacity, cation saturation and surface area.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 46 (3): 673–682. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.46.3.673-682.1983.
Lyklema, J. 1995. Fundamentals of interface and colloid science volume II: Solid–liquid interfaces. New York: Academic Press.
Lytle, C. D., and L. B. Routson. 1995. “Minimized virus binding for tests of barrier materials.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61 (2): 643–649. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.61.2.643-649.1995.
Mackie, J. S., and P. Meares. 1955. “The diffusion of electrolytes in a cation-exchange resin membrane. I. Theoretical.” Proc. R. Soc. A: Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 232 (1191): 498–509.
Mallik, K. 2020. “Use of isoelectric point for fast identification of anti-SARS CoV-2 coronavirus proteins.” Preprints 2020050270, https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints 202005.0270.v1.
Martinez-Gil, L., M. Bano-Polo, N. Redondo, S. Sanchez-Martinez, J. L. Nieva, L. Carrasco, and I. Mingarro. 2011. “Membrane integration of poliovirus 2B viroporin.” J. Virol 85 (21): 11315–11324. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.05421-11.
Moller, W. J. 1964. “Determination of diffusion coefficients and molecular weights of ribonucleic acids and viruses.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 51 (3): 501–509. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.51.3.501.
Moore, R. S., D. H. Taylor, L. S. Sturman, M. M. Reddy, and G. W. Fuhs. 1981. “Poliovirus adsorption by 34 minerals and soils.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 42 (6): 963–975. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.42.6.963-975.1981.
Palomino, A. M., and J. C. Santamarina. 2005. “Fabric map for kaolinite: Effects of pH and ionic concentration on behavior.” Clays Clay Miner. 53 (3): 211–223. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2005.0530302.
Park, J. A., J. K. Kang, J. H. Kim, S. B. Kim, S. Yu, and T. H. Kim. 2015. “Bacteriophage removal in various clay minerals and clay-amended soils.” Environ. Eng. Res 20 (2): 133–140. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2014.084.
Park, J. A., J. H. Kim, C. G. Lee, and S. B. Kim. 2014. “Pyrophyllite clay for bacteriophage MS2 removal in the presence of fluoride.” Water Supply 14 (3): 485–492. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.224.
Penrod, S. L., T. M. Olson, and S. B. Grant. 1996. “Deposition kinetics of two viruses in packed beds of quartz granular media.” Langmuir 12 (23): 5576–5587. https://doi.org/10.1021/la950884d.
Rao, P. S. C. 1974. “Pore-geometry effects on solute dispersion in aggregated soils and evaluation of a predictive model.” Ph.D. thesis, Agronomy and Soil Science, Univ. of Hawaii.
Reddy, A. 2020. “Delhi to Vijayawada, India has started dumping Covid-19 infected waste in public places.” The Print, September 5, 2020.
Rowe, R. K., and J. R. Booker. 1985. “1-D pollutant migration in soils of finite depth.” J. Geotech. Eng. 111 (4): 479–499. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1985)111:4(479).
Sabiha-Javied, T., and M. Sofia Khalid. 2008. “Heavy metal pollution from medical waste incineration at Islamabad and Rawalpindi, Pakistan.” Microchem. J. 90 (1): 77–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2008.03.010.
Sample-Lord, K., W. Zhang, S. Tong, and C. D. Shackelford. 2019. “Apparent salt diffusion coefficients for soil-bentonite backfills.” Can. Geotech. J. 57 (5): 623–634. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2019-0058.
Sapna, J., Y. L. Bhawna, K. Sanjeev, and S. Deepanmol. 2020. “Strategy for repurposing of disposed PPE kits by production of biofuel: Pressing priority amidst COVID-19 pandemic.” Biofuels. https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2020.1797350.
Schijven, J. F., and S. M. Hassanizadeh. 2000. “Removal of viruses by soil passage: Overview of modeling, processes, and parameters.” Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30 (1): 49–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643380091184174.
Schoeman, D., and B. C. Fielding. 2019. “Coronavirus envelope protein: Current knowledge.” Virol. J. 16: 69.
Seiphoori, A., A. Ferrari, and L. Laloui. 2014. “Water retention behaviour and microstructural evolution of MX-80 bentonite during wetting and drying cycles.” Géotechnique 64 (9): 721–734. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.14.P.017.
Shackelford, C. D. 1991. “Laboratory diffusion testing for waste disposal—A review.” J. Contam. Hydrol. 7 (3): 177–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-7722(91)90028-Y.
Shackelford, C. D., and D. E. Daniel. 1991. “Diffusion in saturated soil. II: Results for compacted clay.” J. Geotech. Eng. 117 (3): 485–506. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1991)117:3(485).
Shackelford, C. D., D. E. Daniel, and H. M. Liljestrand. 1989. “Diffusion of inorganic chemical species in compacted clay soil.” J. Contam. Hydrol. 4 (3): 241–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-7722(89)90011-9.
Sharma, H. B., K. R. Vanapalli, V. R. S. Cheela, V. P. Ranjan, K. A. Jaglan, B. Dubey, S. Goel, and J. Bhattacharya. 2020. “Challenges, opportunities, and innovations for effective solid waste management during and post COVID-19 pandemic.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 162: 105052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105052.
Shu, S., Y. Li, W. Zhu, S. Wu, Y. Wu, and H. Hou. 2021. “Comparing desorption properties of pollutants on bentonite particles and in compacted bentonite.” Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 211: 111940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.111940.
Silva, A. L. P., J. C. Prata, T. R. Walker, D. Campos, A. C. Duarte, A. M. V. M. Soares, D. Barcelò, and T. Rocha-Santos. 2020. “Rethinking and optimising plastic waste management under COVID-19 pandemic: Policy solutions based on redesign and reduction of single-use plastics and personal protective equipment.” Sci. Total Environ. 742: 140565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140565.
Stagg, C. H., C. Wallis, and C. H. Ward. 1977. “Inactivation of clay-associated bacteriophage MS-2 by chlorine.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 33 (2): 385–391. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.33.2.385-391.1977.
Syngouna, V. I., and C. V. Chrysikopoulos. 2010. “Interaction between viruses and clays in static and dynamic batch systems.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 (12): 4539–4544. https://doi.org/10.1021/es100107a.
Velde, B. 1995. Origin and mineralogy of clays: Clays and the environment. Berlin: Springer.
Vilker, V. L., and W. D. Burge. 1980. “Adsorption mass transfer model for virus transport in soils.” Water Res. 14 (7): 783–790. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(80)90256-0.
Vilker, V. L., G. C. Meronek, and P. C. Butler. 1983. “Interactions of poliovirus with montmorillonite clay in phosphate-buffered saline.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 17 (10): 631–634. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00116a014.
Wang, Q., and M. Su. 2020. “A preliminary assessment of the impact of COVID-19 on environment—A case study of China.” Sci. Total Environ. 728: 138915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138915.
Wang, Y. H., and W. K. Siu. 2006. “Structure characteristics and mechanical properties of kaolinite soils. I. Surface charges and structural characterizations.” Can. Geotech. J. 43 (6): 587–600. https://doi.org/10.1139/t06-026.
Wanyoike, S., A. Ramirez Gonzalez, S. B. Dolan, J. Garon, C. L. Veira, L. M. Hampton, B. D. Chang, and M. M. Patel. 2017. “Disposing of excess vaccines after the withdrawal of oral polio vaccine.” J. Infect. Dis. 216 (suppl 1): S202–S208. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiw572.
WHO. 2004. WHO global action plan for laboratory containment of wild polioviruses. Vaccines and Biologicals. Geneva: WHO.
WHO. 2020. Waste, sanitation, hygiene, and waste management for SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19: Interim guidance. Geneva: WHO.
You, S., C. Sonne, and Y. S. Ok. 2020. “COVID-19’s unsustainable waste management.” Science 368 (6498): 1438. https://doi.org/10.1126/Science.abc7778.
Yu, W. H., N. Li, D. S. Tong, C. H. Zhou, C. X. Lin, and C. Y. Xu. 2013. “Adsorption of proteins and nucleic acids on clay minerals and their interactions: A review.” Appl. Clay Sci. 80–81: 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2013.06.003.
Zerda, K. S., C. P. Gerba, K. C. Hou, and S. M. Goyal. 1985. “Adsorption of viruses to charge-modified silica.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 49 (1): 91–95. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.49.1.91-95.1985.
Zheng, K. I., G. Feng, W. Liu, G. Targher, C. D. Byrne, and M. Zheng. 2021. “Extrapulmonary complications of COVID-19: A multisystem disease?” J. Med. Virol. 93 (1): 323–335. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26294.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste
Volume 26 • Issue 1 • January 2022
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Feb 17, 2021
Accepted: Aug 4, 2021
Published online: Oct 13, 2021
Published in print: Jan 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Mar 13, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.