Insight into Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Biological Wastewater Treatment and Biosolids Disposal
Publication: Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management
Volume 14, Issue 3
Abstract
All degradable organic materials are decomposed by microorganisms, and considerable amounts of nitrogen end up as gaseous metabolites. No matter what procedure is chosen for getting rid of organic wastes (wastewater treatment, landfiling, and composting), microbial communities will always be involved in the decomposition process, and hence, emissions of greenhouse gases, including nitrous oxide , are inevitable with these processes. is an influential greenhouse gas, vital on climate change, and also is a depleting substance of stratospheric ozone. Any instantaneous or eventual emissions during wastewater treatment, biosolids landfilling, and composting must be measured as anthropogenic intrusion of global cycle, and thus plays a decisive role in ozone depletion. This paper reviews the current available literatures concerning emissions from wastewater treatment facilities, biosolids landfilling, and composting. The outcome of this survey portrays that each process can release a huge amount of to the atmosphere.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The writers are sincerely thankful to the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) (Grant No. UNSPECIFIEDA4984, Canada Research Chair) and Greater Moncton Sewerage Commission (GMSC) for financial support. The views or opinions expressed in this article are those of the writers and should not be construed as opinions of USEPA.
References
Abbatt, J. P. D., and Molina, M. J. (1993). “Status of stratospheric ozone depletion.” Annu. Rev. Energy Environ., 18, 1–29.
Akesson, M., and Nilsson, P. (1998). “Material dependence of methane production rates in landfills.” Waste Manage. Res., 16, 108–118.
Amlinger, F., Peyr, S., and Cuhls, C. (2008). “Greenhouse gas emissions from composting and mechanical biological treatment.” Waste Manage. Res., 26, 47–60.
Amon, B. (1998). “ , and emissions from stable manure management in dairy farm system: Stable-storage-manure spreading.” Doctoral dissertation, Univ. of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
Anderson, I. C., Poth, M., Homstead, J., and Burdige, D. (1993). “A comparison of NO and production by the autotrophic nitrifier Nitrosomonas europaea and the heterotrophic nitrifier Alcaligenes faecalis.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 59, 3525–3533.
Baggs, E. M., Rees, R. M., Castle, K., Scott, A., Smith, K. A., and Vinten, A. J. A. (2002). “Nitrous oxide release from soil receiving N-rich crop residues and paper mill sludge in eastern Scotland.” Agric., Ecosyst. Environ., 90, 109–123.
Barbaree, J. M., and Payne, J. W. (1967). “Products of denitrification by a marine bacterium as revealed by gas chromatography.” Mar. Biol. (Berlin), 1, 136–139.
Barlaz, A. M., Green, R., Chanton, P. J., Goldsmith, D. C., and Hater, R. G. (2004). “Evaluation of a biologically active cover for mitigation of landfill gas emissions.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 4891–4899.
Barton, K. P., and Atwater, W. J. (2002). “Nitrous oxide emissions and the anthropogenic nitrogen in wastewater and solid waste.” J. Environ. Eng., 128(2), 137–150.
Beck-Friis, B., Smårs, S., Jönsson, H., and Kirchmann, H. (2001). “Gaseous emissions of carbon dioxide, ammonia and nitrous oxide from organic household waste in a compost reactor under different temperature regimes.” J. Agric. Eng. Res., 78, 423–430.
Béline, F., and Martinez, J. (2002). “Nitrogen transformations during biological aerobic treatment of pig slurry: effect of intermittent aeration on nitrous oxide emissions.” Bioresour. Technol., 83, 225–228.
Béline, F., Martinez, J., Chadwick, D., Guiziou, F., and Coste, C. -M. (1999). “Factors affecting nitrogen transformations and related nitrous oxide emissions from aerobically treated piggery slurry.” J. Agric. Eng. Res., 73, 235–243.
Belser, L. W., and Schmidt, L. W. (1978). “Diversity in the ammonia-oxidizing nitrifier population of a soil.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 36, 584–588.
Bock, E., Koops, H. P., and Harms, H. (1986). “Cell biology of nitrifying bacteria.” Nitrification: Special publication of the society for general microbiology, J. I. Prosser, ed., Vol. 20, Oxford: IRL Press, Oxford, U.K., 17–38.
Boltze, U., and de Freitas, M. H. (1997). “Monitoring gas emissions from landfill sites.” Waste Manage. Res., 15, 463–476.
Bonin, P., Tamburini, C., and Michotey, V. (2002). “Determination of bacterial processes which are sources of nitrous oxide production in marine samples.” Water Res., 36, 722–732.
Borjesson, G., and Svensson, B. O. H. (1997). “Seasonal and diurnal methane emissions from a landfill and their regulation by methane oxidation.” Waste Manage. Res., 15, 33–54.
Bouwman, A. F. (1994). “Estimated global source distribution of nitrous oxide and global emissions and controls from rice fields and other agricultural and industrial sources.” NIAES series 2, K. Minami, A. Mosier, and R. Sass, eds., Yokendo Publishers, Tokyo, 147–159.
Chen, G. X., Huang, B., Xu, H., Zhang, Y., Huang, G. H., Yu, K. W., Hou, A. X., Du, R., Han, S. J., and van Cleemput, O. (2000). “Nitrous oxide emissions from terrestrial ecosystems in China.” Chemosphere, Glob. Chang. Sci., 2, 373–378.
Cheng, W. G., Tsuruta, H., Chen, G. X., Kazuyuki, Y., (2004). “ and NO production in various Chinese agricultural soils by nitrification.” Soil Biol. Biochem., 36, 953–963.
Colliver, B. B., and Stephenson, T. (2000). “Production of nitrogen oxide and dinitrogen oxide by autotrophic nitrifiers.” Biotechnol. Adv., 18, 219–232.
Crutzen, P. J. (1974). “Estimates of possible variations in total ozone due to neutral causes and human activities.” Ambio, 3, 201–210.
Czepiel, P., Crill, P., and Harris, R. (1995). “Nitrous oxide emissions from municipal wastewater treatment.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 29, 2352–2356.
Czepiel, P., Douglas, E., Harriss, R., and Crill, P. (1996). “Measurements of from composted organic wastes.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 30, 2519–2525.
Davidson, A. (1991). “Fluxes of nitrous oxide and nitric oxide from terrestrial ecosystems.” Icrobial production and consumption of greenhouse gases: methane, nitrogen oxides and halomethanes, E. J. Rogers and B. W. Whitman, eds., Am. Soc. of Microbiol, Washington, D.C., 219–235.
Debruyn, W., Lissens, G., van Rensbergen, J., and Wevers, M. (1994). “Nitrous oxide emissions from wastewater.” Environ. Monit. Assess., 31, 159–165.
Doorn, M. R. J., Towprayoon, S., Vieira, S. M. M., Irving, W., Palmer, C., Pipatti, R., and Wang, C. (2006). IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, Vol. 5, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Hayama, Japan, 6.1–6.28.
Favoino, E., and Hogg, D. (2008). “The potential role of compost in reducing greenhouse gases.” Waste Manage. Res., 26, 61–69.
Firestone, K. M., and Davidson, A. E. (1989). “Microbiological basis of NO and production and consumption in soil.” Exchange of trace gases between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere, M. O. Andreae and D. S. Schimel, eds., Wiley, New York, 7–21.
Freitag, A., Rudert, M., and Bock, E. (1987). “Growth of Nitrobacter by dissimilatoric nitrate reduction.” FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 48, 105–109.
Ghosh, S., Majumdar, D., and Jain, M. C. (2003). “Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from an irrigated rice of north India.” Chemosphere, 51, 181–195.
Goreau, T. J., Kaplan, W. A., Wofsy, S. C., McElroy, M. B., Valois, F. W., and Watson, S. W. (1980). “Production of and by nitrifying bacteria at reduced concentrations of oxygen.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 40, 526–532.
Hanaki, K., Hong, Z., and Matsuo, T. (1992). “Production of nitrous oxide gas during denitrification of wastewater.” Water Sci. Technol., 26, 1027–1036.
Hanaki, K., Nakumura, T., and Matsuo, T. (2001). “Nitrous oxide production in nitrogen removal process treating domestic sewage from combined sewer system.” Advances in water and wastewater treatment technology, T. Matsuo, K. Hanaki, S. Takizawa, and H. Satoh, Elsevier, New York, 153.
Hao, X., Chang, C., and Larney, J. F. (2004). “Carbon, nitrogen balances and greenhouse gas emission during cattle feedlot manure composting.” J. Environ. Qual., 33, 37–44.
He, Y., Inamori, Y., Mizuochi, M., Kong, H., Iwami, N., and Sun, T. (2001). “Nitrous oxide emissions from aerated composting of organic waste.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 2347–2351.
He, Y. W., Inamori, Y., Mizuochi, M., Kong, H. N., Iwami, N., and Sun, T. (2000). “Measurements of and from the aerated composting of food wastes.” Sci. Total Environ., 254, 65–74.
Hellebrand, H. J. (1998). “Emission of nitrous oxide and other trace gases during composting of grass and green waste.” J. Agric. Eng. Res., 69, 365–375.
Hellmann, B. (1995). Occurrence of greenhouse gases from biomass aggregations, Abschlussbericht zum Forderprojekt der Deutschen Bundesstiftung Umwelt, Zeller Verlag, Osnabruck, Germany.
Holtan-Hartwig, L., Dorsch, P., and Bakken, L. R. (2002). “Low temperature control of soil denitrifying communities: kinetics of production and reduction.” Soil Biol. Biochem., 34, 1797–1806.
Hui, C. H., So, M. K., Lee, C. M., and Chan, G. Y. S. (2003). “Nitrous oxide flux from landfill leachate-sawdust nitrogenous compost.” Chemosphere, 52, 1547–1551.
Hutchinson, G. L., and Davidson, E. A. (1993). “Processes for production and consumption of gaseous nitrogen oxides in soil.” Agr. Eco. Effects on Trace Gases and Global Climate Change, G. A. Peterson, P. B. Baenziger, and R. J. Lawrence, eds., American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wis., 79–93.
Inamori, Y., Hosomi, M., and Sudo, R. (1991). “Greenhouse effect gas control producing from wastewater treatment processes.” J. Water Waste, 34, 28–34 (in Japanese).
Inamori, Y., Kimochi, Y., Inamori, R., Gui, P., Kong, H., and Mizuouchi, M. (2003). “Control of anthropogenic and emissions from several industrial sources and from daily human life.” J. Chem. Eng. Jpn., 36, 449–457.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (1997). “Organization for economic cooperation and development.” Revised 1996 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, IPCC/UNEP/OECD/IEA, Paris.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2000). “Good practice guidance and university management in national greenhouse gas inventories.” United Nations environment programme, organization for economic cooperation and development, International Energy Agency, Paris.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2006). “National greenhouse gas inventories.” United Nations environment programme, prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, IGES, Japan.
Itokawa, H., Hanaki, K., and Matsuo, T. (2001). “Nitrous oxide production in high-loading biological nitrogen removal process under low COD/N ratio condition.” Water Res., 35, 657–664.
Kampschreur, M. J., Temmink, H., Kleerebezem, R., Jetten, M. S. M., van Loosdrecht, M. C. M., (2009). “Nitrous oxide emission during wastewater treatment.” Water Res., 43, 4093–4103.
Khdyer, I. I., and Cho, C. M. (1983). “Nitrification and denitrification of nitrogen fertilizers in a soil column.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 47, 1134–1139.
Kimochi, Y., Inamori, Y., Mizuochi, M., Xu, Q. K., and Matsumura, M. (1998). “Nitrogen removal and emission in a full-scale domestic wastewater treatment plant with intermittent aeration.” J. Ferment. Bioeng., 86, 202–206.
Kishida, N., Kim, H. J., Kimochi, Y., Nishimura, O., Sasaki, H., and Sudo, R. (2004). “Effect of C/N ratio on nitrous oxide emission from swine wastewater treatment process.” Water Sci. Technol., 49, 359–371.
Kjeldson, P., and Fischer, E. v. (1995). “Landfill gas migration- field investigations at Skellingsten landfill, Denmark.” Waste Manage. Res., 13, 467–484.
Könneke, M., Bernhard, A. E., de la Torre, J. R., Walker, C. B., Waterbury, J. B., and Stahl, D. A. (2005). “Isolation of an autotrophic ammonia-oxidizing marine archaeon.” Nature, 437, 543–546.
Kuai, L., and Verstraete, W. (1998). “Ammonium removal by the oxygen-limited autotrophic nitrification-denitrification system.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 64, 4500–4506.
Kuroda, K., et al. (1996). “Emissions of malodorous compounds and greenhouse gases from composting of swine faeces.” Bioresour. Technol., 56, 265–271.
Lee, M. C., Lin, R. X., Lan, Y. C., Lo, L. C. S., and Chan, S. Y. G. (2002). “Evaluation of leachate recirculation on nitrous oxide production in the Likang landfill, China.” J. Environ. Qual., 31, 1502–1508.
Lemaire, R., Meyer, R., Taske, A., Crocetti, G. R., Keller, J., and Yuan, Z. (2006). “Identifying causes for accumulation in a lab-scale sequencing batch reactor performing simultaneous nitrification, denitrification and phosphorous removal.” J. Biotechnol., 122, 62–72.
Lu, A. H., and Kunz, C. O. (1981). “Gas flow model to determine methane production at sanitary landfills.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 15, 436–440.
Maljanen, M., Komulainen, V. M., Hytonen, J., Martikainen, P. J., and Laine, J. (2004). “Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane dynamics in boreal organic agricultural soils with different soil characteristics.” Soil Biol. Biochem., 36, 1801–1808.
Mao, J., et al. (2006). “Nitrous oxide production in a sequence batch reactor wastewater treatment system using synthetic wastewater.” Pedosphere, 16, 451–456.
Martikainen, P. J., and de Boer, W. (1993). “Nitrous oxide production and nitrification on acidic soil from a Dutch coniferous forest.” Soil Biol. Biochem., 25, 343–347.
McCarty, G. W. (1999). “Modes of action of nitrification inhibitors.” Biol. Fertil. Soils, 29, 1–9.
McElroy, M. B., and Wofsy, C. S. (1986). “Tropical forests: Interactions with atmosphere.” Tropical rainforests and the world atmosphere, G. Prance, ed., Westview Press, Boulder, Colo., 33–60.
Metcalf & Eddy Inc. (2003). Wastewater engineering: Treatment and reuse, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
Mosher, B. W., et al. (1999). “Methane emissions at nine landfill sites in the northern United States.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 2088–2094.
Okayasu, Y., Abe, I., and Matsuo, Y. (1997). “Emission of nitrous oxide from high-rate nitrification and denitrification by mixed liquor circulating process and sequencing batch reactor process.” Water Sci. Technol., 36, 39–45.
Osada, T., Kuroda, K., and Yonaga, M. (1995). “Reducing nitrous oxide emissions from fill and draw type activated sludge process.” Water Res., 29, 1607–1608.
Papen, H., von Berg, R., Hinkel, I., Thoene, B., and Rennenberg, H. (1989). “Heterotrophic nitrification by Alcaligenes faecalis: , , , and NO production in exponentially growing cultures.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 55, 2068–2072.
Park, H. D., Wells, G. F., Bae, H., Criddle, C. S., and Francis, C. A. (2006). “Occurrence of ammonia-oxidizing Archaea in wastewater treatment plant bioreactors.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72, 5643–5647.
Park, K. Y., Inamori, Y., Mizuochi, M., and Ahn, H. K. (2000). “Emission and control of nitrous oxide from a biological wastewater treatment system with intermittent aeration.” J. Biosci. Bioeng., 90, 247–252.
Park, K. Y., Lee, W. J., Inamori, Y., Mizuochi, M., and Ahn, H. K. (2001). “Effects of fill modes on emission from the SBR treating domestic wastewater.” Water Sci. Technol., 43, 147–150.
Paul, J. W., Beauchamp, E. G., and Zhang, C. (1993). “Nitrous and nitric oxide emissions during nitrification and denitrification from mature-amended soil in the laboratory.” Can. J. Soil Sci., 73, 539–553.
Rettenberger, G., and Schreier, W. (1996). “Combustion processes and emissions of landfill gas flares.” Landfilling of waste: Biogas, T. H. Christensen, et al., eds., E & FN Spon, London, 505–520.
Rinne, J., et al. (2005). “Nitrous oxide emissions from a municipal landfill.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 7790–7793.
Ritchie, G. A. F., and Nicholas, D. J. D. (1972). “Identification of nitrous oxide produced by oxidative reductive processes in Nitrosomonas europaea.” Biochem. J., 126, 1181–1191.
Robertson, G. P., and Tiedje, M. J. (1987). “Nitrous oxide sources in aerobic soils: Nitrification, denitrification and other biological processes.” Soil Biol. Biochem., 19, 187–193.
Robertson, L. A., Cornelisse, R., Devos, P., Hadioetomo, R., and Kuenen, J. G. (1989). “Aerobic denitrification in various heterotrophic nitrifiers.” Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 56, 289–299.
Robertson, L. A., Dalsgaard, T., Revsbech, N. P., and Kuenen, J. G. (1995). “Confirmation of aerobic denitrification in batch cultures, using gas-chromatography and N-15 mass-spectrometry.” FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 18, 113–120.
Schenk, K., Appel, S., and Daum, D. (1997). “ emissions during composting of organic waste.” Acta Hortic., 450, 253–261.
Schmidt, I., Hermelink, C., Van Spanning, R. J. M., and Jetten, M. S. M. (2004). “Denitrification and ammonia oxidation by Nitrosomonas europaea wild type, and NirK- and NorB-deficient mutants.” Microbiol., 150(12), 4107–4114.
Schoharting, B., Rehner, R., Metzger, J. W., Krauth, K., and Rizzi, M. (1998). “Release of nitrous oxide from denitrifying activated sludge caused by -containing wastewater: quantification and application of a new mathematical model.” Water Sci. Technol., 39, 237–246.
Schulthess, R. V., and Gujer, W. (1996). “Release of nitrous oxide from denitrifying activated sludge: verification and application of a mathematical model.” Water Res., 30, 521–530.
Schulthess, R. V., Kuhni, M., and Gujer, W. (1995). “Release of nitric and nitrous oxides from denitrifying activated sludge.” Water Resour., 29, 215–226.
Seiler, W., and Conrad, R. (1987). “Contribution of tropical ecosystems to the global budgets of trace gases, especially , , CO and .” Geophysiology of Amazonia: Vegetation and climate interactions, E. R. Dickinson, ed., Wiley, New York, 133–160.
Sitaula, B. K., and Bakken, R. L. (1993). “Nitrous oxide released in spruce forest soil: Relationships with nitrification, methane production, temperature, moisture and fertilization.” Soil Biol. Biochem., 25, 1415–1421.
Sumer, E., Weiske, A., Benckiser, G., and Ottow, J. C. G. (1995). “Influence of environmental conditions on the amount of released from activated sludge in a domestic wastewater treatment plant.” Experientia, 51, 419–422.
Tallec, G., Garnier, J., Billen, G., and Gousailles, M. (2006a). “Nitrous oxide emissions from secondary activated sludge in nitrifying conditions of urban wastewater treatment plants: Effect of oxygenation level.” Water Res., 40, 2972–2980.
Tallec, G., Garnier, J., Billen, G., and Gousailles, M. (2008). “Nitrous oxide emissions from denitrifying activated sludge of urban wastewater treatment plants, under anoxia and low oxygenation.” Bioresour. Technol., 99, 2200–2209.
Tallec, G., Garnier, J., and Gousailles, M. (2006b). “Nitrogen removal in a wastewater treatment plant through biofilters: Nitrous oxide emissions during nitrification and denitrification.” Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng., 29, 323–333.
Tanaka, M., Miyazaki, M., and Watanable, I. (1994). “ and emission from waste disposal facilities in Japan.” and global emissions and controls from rice fields and other agricultural and industrial sources, K. Minami, A. Mosier, and R. Sass, eds., Yokendo, Tokyo, 181–186.
Thorn, M., and Sorensson, F. (1996). “Variation of nitrous oxide formation in the denitrification basin in a wastewater treatment plant with nitrogen removal.” Water Res., 30, 1543–1547.
Toms, P., Leskiw, J., and Hettiaratchi, P. (1995). “Greenhouse gas offsets: An opportunity for composting.” Presentation at the 88th Annual Meeting and Exhibition, San Antonio, Tex., 18–23.
Tsujimoto, Y., Masuda, J., Fukuya, J., and Ito, H. (1994). “ emissions at solid waste disposal sites in Osaka city.” J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc., 44, 1313–1314.
U.S. EPA. (2006). Inventory of US greenhouse gas emissions and sinks 1990–2004, Washington, D.C.
Wang, Y. S., Odle, W. S., III, Eleazer, W. E., and Barlaz, M. A. (1997). “Methane potential of food waste and anaerobic toxicity of leachate produced during food waste decomposition.” Waste Manage. Res., 15, 149–167.
Wang, Y. S., Xue, M., Zheng, X. H., Ji, B. M., Du, R., and Wang, Y. F. (2005). “Effects of environmental factors on emission from and uptake by the typical grasslands in the Inner Mongolia.” Chemosphere, 58, 205–215.
White, D. M., Nebel, K. L., Gundappa, M., and Ferry, K. R., (1995). “ control technologies applicable to municipal waste combustion.” EPA Summary Report, EPA/600/SR-94/208, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
Wild, D., Schulthess, R. V., and Gujer, W. (1995). “Structure modeling of denitrification intermediates.” Water Sci. Technol., 31, 45–54.
Williams, E. J., Hutchinson, G. L., Fehsenfeld, F. C., (1992). “ and emissions from soil.” Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 6, 351–388.
Wrage, N., Velthof, L. G., van Beusichem, L. M., and Oenema, O. (2001). “Role of nitrifier denitrification in the production of nitrous oxide.” Soil Biol. Biochem., 33, 1723–1732.
Wu, X. L., Kong, H. N., Mizuochi, M., Inamori, Y., Huang, X., and Qian, Y. (1995). “Nitrous oxide emission from microorganisms.” Japan J. Water Treat. Biol., 31, 151–160.
Zeng, R., Lemaire, R., Yuan, Z., and Keller, J. (2003). “Simultaneous nitrification, denitrification, and phosphorus removal in a lab-scale sequencing batch reactor.” Biotechnol. Bioeng., 84, 170–178.
Zeng, R. J., Lemaire, R., Yuan, Z., and Keller, J. (2004). “A novel wastewater treatment process: simultaneous nitrification, denitrification, and phosphorous removal.” Water Sci. Technol., 50, 163–170.
Zhang, H., Pinjing, H., Liming, S., Xian, Q., and Duujong, E. E. L. (2008). “Minimizing fluxes from full-scale municipal solid waste landfill with properly selected cover soil.” J. Environ. Sci. (China), 20, 189–194.
Zheng, H., Hanaki, K., and Matsuo, T. (1994). “Production of nitrous oxide gas during nitrification of wastewater.” Water Sci. Technol., 306, 134–141.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management
Volume 14 • Issue 3 • July 2010
Pages: 158 - 169
Copyright
© 2010 ASCE.
History
Received: Jan 27, 2009
Accepted: Dec 28, 2009
Published online: Jun 15, 2010
Published in print: Jul 2010
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.