Influence of Sample Holding Time on the Fluvial Erosion of Remolded Cohesive Soils
Publication: Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
Volume 144, Issue 8
Abstract
Despite extensive research on bridge scour and channel erosion, predicting the occurrence and rate of cohesive soil erosion remains problematic. The lack of standard procedures for sample preparation and testing has resulted in wide variations in testing conditions, devices, and soil properties across erosion studies, ultimately preventing the synthesis of cohesive erosion studies and progress in understanding the fundamental processes of cohesive soil erosion. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of sample holding time on the fluvial erosion of remolded cohesive soils to inform the development of standard testing procedures. Three different soils (fat clay, lean clay, and silty sand) were tested in a flume following multiple sample holding times. Results show that erosion rate can decrease 85–95% within 72 h of soil wetting, depending on clay mineralogy. These results highlight the importance of maintaining a consistent soil preparation protocol in cohesive soil erosion experiments and reporting soil sample holding durations when conducting cohesive erosion research using remolded samples.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
Funding for this study was provided by the Virginia Tech Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science (ICTAS) and the 4-VA Competitive Research Grants. The authors would also like to thank SGS Minerals Services and Dr. Martin C. Rabenhorst at the University of Maryland for clay mineral testing.
References
Amos, C. L., A. Bergamasco, G. Umgiesser, S. Cappucci, D. Cloutier, L. Denat, M. Flindt, M. Bonardi, and S. Cristante. 2004. “The stability of tidal flats in Venice Lagoon—The results of in-situ measurements using two benthic, annular flumes.” J. Marine Syst. 51 (1–4): 211–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2004.05.013.
Ariathurai, R., and K. Arulanandan. 1978. “Erosion rates of cohesive soils.” J. Hydr. Div. 104 (2): 279–283.
Arulanandan, K., E. Gillogley, and R. Tully. 1980. Development of a quantitative method to predict critical shear stress and rate of erosion of natural undisturbed cohesive soils. Vicksburg, MS: US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
ASTM. 2003a. Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort ( ()). ASTM D698. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2003b. Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. ASTM D4318. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2006. Standard test method for sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates. ASTM C136. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2007. Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils. ASTM 422. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2010. Standard test methods for laboratory determination of water (moisture) content of soil and rock by mass. ASTM D2216. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Athanasopoulos, G. A. 1993. “Preconsolidation versus aging behavior of kaolinite clay.” J. Geotech. Eng. 119 (6): 1060–1066. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1993)119:6(1060).
Bale, A. J., J. A. Stephens, and C. B. Harris. 2007. “Critical erosion profiles in macro-tidal estuary sediments: Implications for the stability of intertidal mud and the slope of mud banks.” Cont. Shelf Res. 27 (18): 2303–2312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2007.05.015.
Baxter, C. D. P., and J. K. Mitchell. 2004. “Experimental study on the aging of sands.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130 (10): 1051–1062. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:10(1051).
Briaud, J.-L., F. C. K. Ting, H. C. Chen, Y. Cao, S. W. Han, and K. W. Kwak. 2001. “Erosion function apparatus for scour rate predictions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 127 (2): 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2001)127:2(105).
Briaud, J.-L., F. C. K. Ting, H. C. Chen, R. Guadavalli, S. Perugu, and G. Wei. 1999. “SRICOS: Prediction of scour rate in cohesive soils at bridge piers.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 125 (4): 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1999)125:4(237).
Clark, L. A., and T. M. Wynn. 2007. “Methods for determining streambank critical shear stress and soil erodibility: Implications for erosion rate predictions.” Trans. ASABE 50 (1): 95–106. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.22415.
Couper, P. R., and I. P. Maddock. 2001. “Subaerial river bank erosion processes and their interaction with other bank erosion mechanisms on the River Arrow, Warwickshire, UK.” Earth Surf. Processes Landforms 26 (6): 631–646. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.212.
Cuceoglu, F. 2016. “An experimental study on soil water characteristics and hydraulic conductivity of compacted soils.” M.Sc. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Daly, E. R., G. A. Fox, A. S. T. Al-Madhhachi, and D. E. Storm. 2015. “Variability of fluvial erodibility parameters for streambanks on a watershed scale.” Geomorphology 231: 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.12.016.
Debnath, K., V. Nikora, J. Aberle, B. Westrich, and M. Muste. 2007. “Erosion of cohesive sediments: Resuspension, bed load, and erosion patterns from field experiments.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 133 (5): 508–520. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2007)133:5(508).
Dexter, A. R., R. Horn, and W. D. Kemper. 1988. “Two mechanisms for age-hardening of soil.” Eur. J. Soil Sci. 39 (2): 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1988.tb01203.x.
Dunn, I. S. 1959. “Tractive resistance to cohesive channels.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 85 (3): 1–24.
Fernandes, S., P. Sobral, and F. Alcântara. 2009. “Nereis diversicolor and copper contamination effect on the erosion of cohesive sediments: A flume experiment.” Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 82 (3): 443–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2009.02.007.
Gee, G. W., and D. Or. 2002. “Particle-size analysis.” In Methods of soil analysis part 4—Physical methods, edited by J. H. Dane and G. C. Topp, 255–289. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy.
Gerbersdorf, S. U., T. Jancke, and B. Westrich. 2007. “Sediment properties for assessing the erosion risk of contaminated riverine sites.” J. Soils Sediments 7 (1): 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1065/jss2006.11.190.
Grabowski, R. C., I. G. Droppo, and G. Wharton. 2011. “Erodibility of cohesive sediment: The importance of sediment properties.” Earth-Sci. Rev. 105 (3): 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.01.008.
Grabowski, R. C., G. Wharton, G. R. Davies, and I. G. Droppo. 2012. “Spatial and temporal variations in the erosion threshold of fine riverbed sediments.” J. Soils Sediments 12 (7): 1174–1188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-012-0534-9.
Graf, G., and R. Rosenberg. 1997. “Bioresuspension and biodeposition: A review.” J. Marine Syst. 11 (3–4): 269–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-7963(96)00126-1.
Grissinger, E. H. 1966. “Resistance of selected clay systems to erosion by water.” Water Resour. Res. 2 (1): 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR002i001p00131.
Hanson, G., and K. Cook. 1997. Development of excess shear stress parameters for circular jet testing. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
Hanson, G. J. 1990. “Surface erodibility of earthen channels at high stresses. Part II—Developing an in situ testing device.” Trans. ASAE 33 (1): 132–137. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.31306.
Hanson, G. J. 1991. “Development of a jet index to characterize erosion resistance of soils in earthen spillways.” Trans. ASAE 34 (5): 2015–2020. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.31831.
Hanson, G. J., and A. Simon. 2001. “Erodibility of cohesive streambeds in the loess area of the midwestern USA.” Hydrolog. Process. 15 (1): 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.149.
Harris, W. G., S. S. Iyengar, L. W. Zelazny, J. C. Parker, D. A. Lietzke, and W. J. Edmonds. 1980. “Mineralogy of a chronosequence formed in New River alluvium.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44 (4): 862–868. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400040041x.
Jepsen, R., J. Roberts, and W. Lick. 1997. “Effects of bulk density on sediment erosion rates.” Water Air Soil Poll. 99 (1–4): 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:101835562.
Julian, J. P., and R. Torres. 2006. “Hydraulic erosion of cohesive riverbanks.” Geomorphology 76 (1–2): 193–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.11.003.
Kamphuis, J. W., and K. R. Hall. 1983. “Cohesive material erosion by unidirectional current.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 109 (1): 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1983)109:1(49).
Kandiah, A. 1974. “Fundamental aspects of surface erosion of cohesive soils.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of California.
Karathanasis, A. D., and W. G. Harris. 1994. “Quantitative thermal analysis of soil materials.” In Quantitative Methods in Soil Mineralogy, edited by J. E. Amonette and L. W. Zelazny, 360–411. Madison, WI: Soil Science Society of America.
Kemper, W. D., and R. C. Rosenau. 1984. “Soil cohesion as affected by time and water content.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 48 (5): 1001–1006. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1984.03615995004800050009x.
Kemper, W. D., and R. C. Rosenau. 1986. “Aggregate stability and size distribution.” In Methods of soil analyses, edited by A. Klute. 2nd ed. 425–552, Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy.
Kunze, G. W. 1965. “Pretreatments for mineralogical analysis.” In Methods of soil analyses, edited by C. A. Black, 568–577. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy.
Lawler, D. M. 1992. “Process dominance in bank erosion systems.” In Lowland floodplain rivers: Geomorphological perspectives, edited by P. A. Carling and G. E. Petts, 117–143. New York: Wiley.
Lick, W., and J. McNeil. 2001. “Effects of sediment bulk properties on erosion rates.” Sci. Total Environ. 266 (1–3): 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(00)00747-6.
Mehta, A. J. 1986. “Characterization of cohesive sediment properties and transport processes in estuaries.” In Estuarine cohesive sediment dynamics: Lecture notes on coastal studies, edited by A. J. Mehta, 290–325. Berlin: Springer.
Mehta, A. J. 1991. “Review notes on cohesive sediment erosion.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., Coastal Sediments, 40–53. New York, NY: ASCE.
Mehta, A. J., and T. M. Parchure. 2000. “Surface erosion of fine-grained sediment revisited.” In Muddy coast dynamics and resource management, edited by B. W. Flemming, M. T. Delafontaine, and G. Liebezeit, 55–74. New York, NY: Elsevier.
Mehta, A. J., and E. Partheniades. 1982. “Resuspension of deposited cohesive sediment beds.” In Proc., 18th Coastal Engineering Conf., 1569–1588. New York, NY: ASCE.
Mirtskhulava, T. E. 1966. “Erosional stability of cohesive soils.” J. Hydraul. Res. 4 (1): 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221686609500091.
Mitchell, J. K., and K. Soga. 2005. Fundamentals of soil behavior. 3rd ed. London, UK: Wiley.
Mitchell, J. K., and Z. V. Solymar. 1984. “Time-dependent strength gain in freshly deposited or densified sand.” J. Geotech. Eng. 110 (11): 1559–1576. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1984)110:11(1559).
Mitchell, J. M. 1960. “Fundamental aspects of thixotropy in soils.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. 86 (3): 19–52.
Moore, W. L., and F. D. Masch Jr. 1962. “Experiments on the scour resistance of cohesive sediments.” J. Geophys. Res. 67 (4): 1437–1446. https://doi.org/10.1029/JZ067i004p01437.
Morgan, R. P. 2006. Soil erosion and conservation. 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Morgan, R. P., and R. J. Rickson. 1995. Slope stabilization and erosion control: A bioengineering approach. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall.
Nalezny, C. L., and M. C. Li. 1967. Effect of soil structure and thixotropic hardening on the swell behavior of compacted clay soils. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Nouwakpo, S. K., C. Huang, M. A. Weltz, F. Pimenta, I. Chagas, and L. Lima. 2014. “Using fluidized bed and flume experiments to quantify cohesion development from aging and drainage.” Earth Surf. Processes Landforms 39 (6): 749–757. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3477.
Paaswell, R. E. 1973. Causes and mechanisms of cohesive soil erosion: The state of the art., 52–74. Washington, DC: National Research Council.
Parchure, T. M., and A. J. Mehta. 1985. “Erosion of soft cohesive sediment deposits.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 111 (10): 1308–1326. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1985)111:10(1308).
Parks, O. W. 2012. “Effect of water temperature on cohesive soil erosion.” M.Sc. thesis, Dept. of Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Partheniades, E. 1965. “Erosion and deposition of cohesive soils.” J. Hydr. Div. 91 (1): 105–139.
Partheniades, E. 2009. Cohesive sediments in open channels. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Pimentel, D., et al. 1995. “Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits.” Science 267 (5201): 1117–1123. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.267.5201.1117.
Prosser, I. P., A. O. Hughes, and I. D. Rutherfurd. 2000. “Bank erosion of an incised upland channel by subaerial processes: Tasmania, Australia.” Earth Surf. Processes Landforms 25 (10): 1085–1101. https://doi.org/10.1002/1096-9837(200009)25:10%3C1085::AID-ESP118%3E3.0.CO;2-K.
Raudkivi, A. J. 1998. Loose boundary hydraulics. 4th ed. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Balkema.
Raudkivi, A. J., and S. K. Tan. 1984. “Erosion of cohesive soils.” J. Hydraul. Res. 22 (4): 217–233.
Sargunam, A., P. Riley, K. Arulanandan, and R. B. Krone. 1973. “Physico-chemical factors in erosion of cohesive soils.” J. Hydr. Div. 99 (3): 555–558.
Schmertmann, J. H. 1991. “The mechanical aging of soils.” J. Geotech. Eng. 117 (9): 1288–1330. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1991)117:9(1288).
Sgro, L., M. Mistri, and J. Widdows. 2005. “Impact of the infaunal Manila clam, Ruditapes philippinarum, on sediment stability.” Hydrobiologia 550 (1): 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-005-4375-z.
Shainberg, I., D. Goldstein, and G. J. Levy. 1996. “Rill erosion dependence on soil water content, aging, and temperature.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 60 (3): 916–922. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1996.03615995006000030034x.
Shapiro, S. S., and M. B. Wilk. 1965. “An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples).” Biometrika 52 (3–4): 591–611. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/52.3-4.591.
Simon, A., and A. J. C. Collison. 2001. “Pore-water pressure effects on the detachment of cohesive streambeds: Seepage forces and matric suction.” Earth Surf. Processes Landforms 26 (13): 1421–1442. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.287.
Simon, A., and M. Rinaldi. 2006. “Disturbance, stream incision, and channel evolution: The roles of excess transport capacity and boundary materials in controlling channel response.” Geomorphology 79 (3–4): 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.06.037.
Simon, A., R. E. Thomas, A. J. C. Collison, and W. Dickerson. 2002. Erodibility of cohesive streambeds in the Yalobusha river system. Oxford, MS: USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Sedimentation Laboratory.
Smerdon, E. T., and R. P. Beasley. 1959. Tractive force theory applied to stability of open channels in cohesive soils. Columbia, MI: Agricultural Experiment Station, Univ. of Missouri.
Telles, T. S., M. de F. Guimarães, and S. C. F. Dechen. 2011. “The costs of soil erosion.” R. Bras. Ci. Solo 35 (2): 287–298. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832011000200001.
Thomsen, L., and G. Gust. 2000. “Sediment erosion thresholds and characteristics of resuspended aggregates on the western European continental margin.” Deep-Sea Res. I 47 (10): 1881–1897. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0637(00)00003-0.
Tolhurst, T. J., R. Reithmüller, and D. M. Paterson. 2000. “In situ versus laboratory analysis of sediment stability from intertidal mudflats.” Cont. Shelf Res. 20 (10–11): 1317–1334. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4343(00)00025-X.
Utley, B. C., and T. M. Wynn. 2008. “Cohesive soil erosion: Theory and practice.” In Proc., ASCE World Environmental and Water Resources Congress. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Utomo, W. H., and A. R. Dexter. 1980. “Effect of ageing on compression resistance and water stability of soil aggregates disturbed by tillage.” Soil Till. Res. 1: 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-1987(80)90017-3.
van Ledden, M., W. M. van Kesteren, and J. C. Winterwerp. 2004. “A conceptual framework for the erosion behaviour of sand–mud mixtures.” Cont. Shelf Res. 24 (1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2003.09.002.
Wan, C. F., and R. Fell. 2002. Investigation of internal erosion and piping of soils in embankment dams by the slot erosion test and the hole erosion test. Sydney, Australia: Univ. of New South Wales.
Wan, C. F., and R. Fell. 2004. “Investigation of rate of erosion of soils in embankment dams.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130 (4): 373–380. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:4(373).
Widdows, J., M. D. Brinsley, and N. D. Pope. 2009. “Effect of Nereis diversicolor density on the erodability of estuarine sediment.” Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 378: 135–143. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07864.
Willett, C. D., R. N. Lerch, R. C. Schultz, S. A. Berges, R. D. Peacher, and T. M. Isenhart. 2012. “Streambank erosion in two watersheds of the Central Claypan Region of Missouri, United States.” J. Soil Water Conserv. 67 (4): 249–263. https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.67.4.249.
Winterwerp, J. C., and W. M. van Kesteren. 2004. Vol. 56 of Introduction to the physics of cohesive sediment in the marine environment: Developments in sedimentology. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
Wynn, T. M., M. B. Henderson, and D. H. Vaughan. 2008. “Changes in streambank erodibility and critical shear stress due to subaerial processes along a headwater stream, southwestern Virginia, USA.” Geomorphology 97 (3): 260–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.08.010.
Wynn, T. M., and S. Mostaghimi. 2006. “Effects of riparian vegetation on stream bank subaerial processes in southwestern Virginia, USA.” Earth Surf. Processes Landforms 31 (4): 399–413. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1252.
Young, R. A. 1980. “Characteristics of eroded sediment.” Trans. ASAE 23 (5): 1139–1142. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.34735.
Zreik, D. A., B. G. Krishnappan, J. T. Germaine, O. S. Madsen, and C. C. Ladd. 1998. “Erosional and mechanical strengths of deposited cohesive sediments.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 124 (11): 1076–1085. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1998)124:11(1076).
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
Volume 144 • Issue 8 • August 2018
Copyright
©2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: May 2, 2017
Accepted: Mar 22, 2018
Published online: Jun 5, 2018
Published in print: Aug 1, 2018
Discussion open until: Nov 5, 2018
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.