Impact of Spatial Variations in Permeability of Liquefiable Deposits on Seismic Performance of Structures and Effectiveness of Drains
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 145, Issue 8
Abstract
Sand deposits are often stratified with thin layers of low-permeability silt. Previous studies have shown that the presence of sharp variations in permeability could slow down the dissipation of earthquake-induced excess pore pressures and cause void redistribution and shear strain localization. However, the relative importance and influence of these phenomena on seismic site response, soil–structure interaction, response of foundation and superstructure, and effectiveness of liquefaction countermeasures is not well understood. In this study, we present the results of dynamic centrifuge tests that evaluate the response of 3- and 9-story inelastic steel structures (A and B) founded on layered liquefiable deposits with and without a silt cap. The thin silt layer is also evaluated in terms of its influence on the effectiveness of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) as mitigation. The results indicate that a thin silt cap may have beneficial or detrimental effects on a structure’s performance, particularly when evaluated in terms of foundation’s permanent rotation (or tilt). Under the lighter, stronger, and stiffer Structure A, concentration of shear strains in the relatively thin loose zone below the silt layer reduced permanent rotation by 60%–100% compared with the same structure on the soil profile without silt. However, the greater inertial moment and shear demand on the foundation and loose zone below silt from the heavier, weaker, and more flexible Structure B initiated larger shear deformations and rotations, leading to larger dilation tendencies and a momentary reduction in excess pore pressures in the soil below. This amplified accelerations on the foundation, flexural deformations in the superstructure, and effects that further exacerbated rotation and damage to the superstructure. The effect of PVDs was similar on both profiles, reducing the foundation’s permanent settlement (by up to 57%) and tilt (by up to 49%), but the influence of silt on performance was similar to that of unmitigated structures. These results point to the importance of identifying and characterizing thin interlayers in the soil profile, together with the key properties of structure, foundation, and ground motion, when assessing and mitigating the consequences of liquefaction.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This material is based upon work supported in part by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant No. 1362696. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF. The authors would also like to thank Drs. Peter Kirkwood, Mahir Badanagki, and Juan Olarte for their assistance in centrifuge model preparation and testing.
References
Andrus, R. D., and K. H. Stokoe II, and J. M. Roesset. 1991. “Liquefaction of gravelly soil at Pence Ranch during the 1983 Borah Peak, Idaho earthquake.” In Proc., Fifth Int. Conf. on Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 251–262. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
Badanagki, M., S. Dashti, and P. Kirkwood. 2018. “An experimental study of the influence of dense granular columns on the performance of level and gently sloping liquefiable sites.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 144 (9): 04018065. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001937.
Boulanger, R. W., and S. P. Truman. 1996. “Void redistribution in sand under post-earthquake loading.” Can. Geotech. J. 33 (5): 829–834. https://doi.org/10.1139/t96-109-329.
Bullock, Z., S. Dashti, Z. Karimi, A. B. Liel, K. Porter, and K. Frankie. 2019. “Probabilistic models for the residual and peak transient tilt of mat-founded structures in liquefiable soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 145 (2): 04018108. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002002.
Bullock, Z., Z. Karimi, S. Dashti, K. Porter, A. B. Liel, and K. Frankie. 2018. “A physics-informed semi-empirical probabilistic model for the settlement of shallow-founded structures on liquefiable ground.” Geotechnique 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.17.P.174.
Cubrinovski, M., A. Rhodes, and N. Ntritsos. 2017. “System response of liquefiable deposits.” In Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Performance-Based Design in Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering. London: International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
Dashti, S., J. Bray, J. Pestana, M. Riemer, and D. Wilson. 2010a. “Centrifuge testing to evaluate and mitigate liquefaction-induced building settlement mechanisms.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (7): 918–929. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000306.
Dashti, S., J. Bray, J. Pestana, M. Riemer, and D. Wilson. 2010b. “Mechanisms of seismically induced settlement of buildings with shallow foundations on liquefiable soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (1): 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000179.
Dobry, R., and L. Liu. 1992. “Centrifuge modeling of soil liquefaction.” In Proc., 10th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 6801–6809. Tokyo: International Association for Earthquake Engineering.
El-Sekelly, W., R. Dobry, T. Abdoun, and J. H. Steidl. 2016. “Centrifuge modeling of the effect of preshaking on the liquefaction resistance of silty sand deposits.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (6): 04016012. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001430.
Fiegel, G. L., and B. L. Kutter. 1994. “Liquefaction mechanism for layered soils.” J. Geotech. Eng. 120 (4): 737–755. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:4(737).
Hausler, E. A. 2002. “Influence of ground improvement on settlement and liquefaction: A study based on field case history evidence and dynamic geotechnical centrifuge tests.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Ishihara, K. 1985. “Stability of natural deposits during earthquakes.” In Proc., 11th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 321–376. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A. A. Balkema.
Karimi, Z., and S. Dashti. 2016. “Seismic performance of shallow founded structures on liquefiable ground: Validation of numerical simulations using centrifuge experiments.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (6): 04016011. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001479.
Kirkwood, P., and S. Dashti. 2018. “A centrifuge study of seismic structure-soil-structure interaction on liquefiable ground and implications for design in dense urban areas.” Earthquake Spectra 34 (3): 1113–1134. https://doi.org/10.1193/052417EQS095M.
Kokusho, T. 1999. “Water film in liquefied sand and its effect on lateral spread.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 125 (10): 817–826. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1999)125:10(817).
Kokusho, T. 2003. “Current state of research on flow failure considering void redistribution in liquefied deposits.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 23 (7): 585–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0267-7261(03)00067-8.
Kokusho, T., and K. Fujita. 2001. “Water films involved in post-liquefaction flow failure in Niigata City during the 1964 Niigata earthquake.” In Proc., Fourth Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics. Rolla, MO: Univ. of Missouri-Rolla.
Kokusho, T., and T. Kojima. 2002. “Mechanism for post-liquefaction water film generation in layered sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 128 (2): 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2002)128:2(129).
Kramer, S. L., S. S. Sideras, and M. W. Greenfield. 2016. “The timing of liquefaction and its utility in liquefaction hazard evaluation.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 91: 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2016.07.025.
Kulasingam, R., E. J. Malvick, and R. W. Boulanger. 2004. “Strength loss and localization at silt interlayers in slopes of liquefied sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130 (11): 1192–1202. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:11(1192).
Lee, C. J., H. T. Chen, H. C. Lien, Y. C. Wei, and W. Y. Hung. 2014. “Centrifuge modeling of seismic response of sand deposits with an intra-silt layer.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 65: 72–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2014.06.002.
Liu, H., and T. Qiao. 1984. “Liquefaction potential of saturated sand deposits underlying foundation of structure.” In Proc., 8th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 199–206. Tokyo: International Association for Earthquake Engineering.
Liu, L., and R. Dobry. 1997. “Seismic response of shallow foundation on liquefiable sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 123 (6): 557–567. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1997)123:6(557).
Maharjan, M., and A. Takahashi. 2013. “Centrifuge model tests on liquefaction-induced settlement and pore water migration in non-homogenous soil deposits.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 55: 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2013.09.002.
Olarte, J. C., S. Dashti, and A. B. Liel. 2018a. “Can ground densification improve seismic performance of the soil-foundation-structure system on liquefiable soils?” Earthquake Eng. Structural Dyn. 47 (5): 1193–1211. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.3012.
Olarte, J. C., S. Dashti, A. B. Liel, and B. Paramasivam. 2018b. “Effects of drainage control on densification as a liquefaction mitigation technique.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 110: 212–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.03.018.
Olarte, J. C., B. Paramasivam, S. Dashti, A. B. Liel, and J. Zannin. 2017. “Centrifuge modeling of mitigation-soil-foundation-structure interaction on liquefiable ground.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 97: 304–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.03.014.
Ozener, P. T., K. Ozaydin, and M. M. Berilgen. 2009. “Investigation of liquefaction and pore water pressure development in layered sands.” Bull. Earthquake Eng. 7 (1): 199–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-008-9076-3.
Paramasivam, B., S. Dashti, and A. B. Liel. 2018. “Influence of prefabricated vertical drains on the seismic performance of structures founded on liquefiable soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 144 (10): 04018070. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001950.
Ramirez, J., A. Barrero, L. Chen, S. Dashti, A. Ghofrani, M. Taiebat, and P. Arduino. 2018. “Site response in a layered liquefiable deposit: Evaluation of different numerical tools and methodologies with centrifuge experimental results.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 144 (10): 04018073. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001947.
Stockwell, R. G., L. Mansinha, and R. P. Lowe. 1996. “Localization of the complex spectrum: The S transform.” IEEE Trans. Signal Process. 44 (4): 998–1001. https://doi.org/10.1109/78.492555.
Stringer, M. E., and S. P. G. Madabhushi. 2009. “Novel computer-controlled saturation of dynamic centrifuge models using high viscosity fluids.” Geotech. Test. J. 32 (6): 559–564. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ102435.
Taylor, R. 1995. Geotechnical centrifuge technology. 1st ed. London: Taylor & Francis.
Wilson, E., and A. Habibullah. 1987. “Static and dynamic analysis of multi-story buildings, including P-delta effects.” Earthquake Spectra 3 (2): 289–298. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.1585429.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
©2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: May 10, 2018
Accepted: Nov 30, 2018
Published online: May 17, 2019
Published in print: Aug 1, 2019
Discussion open until: Oct 17, 2019
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.