Effect of the Mode of Shear on Static Liquefaction Analysis
This article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLYThis article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLYPublication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 140, Issue 12
Abstract
The current practices for determining the peak (yield) and postliquefaction (critical) undrained shear strength of liquefiable cohesionless soils for grounds subject to static shear stress (e.g., sloping grounds or grounds beneath foundations) require either a suite of costly laboratory shear tests on undisturbed field samples or empirical correlations with in situ penetration tests, which do not account for the effect of the shearing mode on soil behavior. Improved correlations are developed in this study for estimating the undrained triggering and postliquefaction shear strengths of cohesionless soils, which are based on the most reliable field-liquefaction data from past cases of liquefaction flow failures and soil shearing behavior observed in a large database of 600 laboratory shear tests for different modes of shear. The proposed method accounts for the variations in the mode of shear when providing estimates of the undrained triggering and postliquefaction strengths mobilized in static liquefaction flow failures.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The intellectual comments provided by the anonymous reviewers, which greatly improved the paper, are very much appreciated.
References
Adalier, K., and Elgamal, A.-W. (2002). “Seismic response of adjacent dense and loose saturated sand columns.” Soil. Dyn. Earthquake Eng., 22(2), 115–127.
Alarcon-Guzman, A., Leonards, G. A., and Chameau, J. L. (1988). “Undrained monotonic and cyclic strength of sands.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 1089–1109.
Anderson, S. A., and Sitar, N. (1995). “Analysis of rainfall-induced debris flows.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 544–552.
ASTM. (2006). “Standard test methods for minimum index density and unit weight of soils and calculation of relative density.” D4254, West Conshohocken, PA.
Ayoubian, A., and Robertson, P. K. (1998). “Void ratio redistribution in undrained triaxial extension tests on Ottawa sand.” Can. Geotech. J., 35(2), 351–359.
Bagnold, R. A. (1954). “Experiments on a gravity-free dispersion of large solid spheres in a Newtonian fluid under shear.” Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 225(1160), 49–63.
Baki, Md. A. L., Rahman, M. M., Lo, S. R., and Gnanendran, C. T. (2012). “Linkage between static and cyclic liquefaction of loose sand with a range of fines contents.” Can. Geotech. J., 49(8), 891–906.
Been, K., Jefferies, M. G., and Hachey, J. (1991). “The critical state of sands.” Géotechnique, 41(3), 365–381.
Bishop, A. W. (1971). “Shear strength parameters for undisturbed and remoulded soil specimens.” Proc., Roscoe Memorial Symp., R. H. G. Parry, ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 3–58.
Boulanger, R. W., and Truman, S. P. (1996). “Void redistribution in sand under post-earthquake loading.” Can. Geotech. J., 33(5), 829–834.
Buscarnera, G., and Whittle, A. J. (2013). “Model prediction of static liquefaction: Influence of the initial state on potential instabilities.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 420–432.
Campbell, C. S., Cleary, P. W., and Hopkins, M. (1995). “Large-scale landslide simulations: Global deformation, velocities, and basal friction.” J. Geophys. Res. B: Solid Earth, 100(B5), 8267–8283.
Casagrande, A. (1936). “Characteristics of cohesionless soils affecting the stability of slopes and earth fills.” J. Boston Soc. Civil Eng., 23(Jan), 13–32.
Castro, G. (1969). “Liquefaction of sands.” Ph.D. thesis, Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA.
Castro, G., Enos, J. L., France, J. W., and Poulos, S. J. (1982). “Liquefaction induced by cyclic loading.” Technical Rep. Prepared for National Science Foundation, Geotechnical Engineers, Winchester, MA.
Chu, J. (1995). “An experimental examination of the critical state and other similar concepts for granular soils.” Can. Geotech. J., 32(6), 1065–1075.
Davis, A. P., Poulos, S. J., and Castro, G. (1988). “Strengths backfigured from liquefaction case histories.” Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, Missouri Univ. of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, 1693–1701.
Davis, R. O., and Bolton, M. D. (1997). “Strength of post-liquefaction flows—A speculative velocity dependent model.” Proc., 9th Int. Conf. of the Association for Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, International Association for Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (IACMAG), Tucson, AZ.
Dawson, R. F., Morgenstern, N. R., and Stokes, A. W. (1998). “Liquefaction flowslides in Rocky Mountain coal mine waste dumps.” Can. Geotech. J., 35(2), 328–343.
De Gennaro, V., Canou, J., Dupla, J. C., and Benahmed, N. (2004). “Influence of loading path on the undrained behaviour of a medium loose sand.” Can. Geotech. J., 41(1), 166–180.
Dennis, N. D. (1988). “Influence of specimen preparation techniques and testing procedures on undrained steady state shear strength.” Advanced triaxial testing of soil and rock, STP 977, R. T. Donaghe, R. C. Chaney, and M. L. Silver, eds., ASTM, Philadelphia, 642–654.
Doanh, T., Ibraim, E., and Matiotti, R. (1997). “Undrained instability of very loose Hostun sand in triaxial compression and extension. Part 1: Experimental observations.” Mech. Cohesive-Frictional Mater., 2(1), 47–70.
Finge, Z., Doanh, T., and Dubujet, P. (2006). “Undrained anisotropy of Hostun RF loose sand: New experimental investigations.” Can. Geotech. J., 43(11), 1195–1212.
Fourie, A. B., Blight, G. E., and Papageorgiou, G. (2001). “Static liquefaction as a possible explanation for the Merriespruit tailings dam failure.” Can. Geotech. J., 38(4), 707–719.
Fourie, A. B., and Tshabalala, L. (2005). “Initiation of static liquefaction and the role of consolidation.” Can. Geotech. J., 42(3), 892–906.
Gilbert, P. A., and Marcuson, W. F., III. (1988). “Density variation in specimens subjected to cyclic and monotonic loads.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 1–20.
Hanzawa, H. (1980). “Undrained strength and stability analysis for a quick sand.” Soils Found., 20(2), 17–29.
Hofmann, B. A., Sego, D. C., and Robertson, P. K. (2000). “In situ ground freezing to obtain undisturbed samples of loose sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 979–989.
Hyodo, M., Tanimizu, H., Yasufuku, N., and Murata, H. (1994). “Undrained cyclic and monotonic triaxial behaviour of saturated loose sand.” Soils Found., 34(1), 19–32.
Infante-Sedano, J. A. (1998). “Constant volume ring shear tests for sand.” M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Ottawa, Ottawa.
Iverson, R. M. (1997). “The physics of debris flows.” Rev. Geophys., 35(3), 245–296.
Iverson, R. M., and LaHusen, R. G. (1989). “Dynamic pore-pressure fluctuations in rapidly shearing granular materials.” Science, 246(4931), 796–799.
Iverson, R. M., Reid, M. E., and LaHusen, R. G. (1997). “Debris-flow mobilization from landslides.” Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 25, 85–138.
Jefferies, M. G., and Been, K. (2006). Soil liquefaction: A critical state approach, Taylor & Francis, New York.
Kokusho, T., and Kojima, T. (2002). “Mechanism for postliquefaction water film generation in layered sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 129–137.
Konrad, J.-M. (1990). “Minimum undrained strength of two sands.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 932–947.
Konrad, J.-M. (1993). “Undrained response of loosely compacted sands during monotonic and cyclic compression tests.” Géotechnique, 43(1), 69–90.
Konrad, J.-M., and Pouliot, N. (1997). “Ultimate state of reconstituted and intact samples of deltaic sand.” Can. Geotech. J., 34(5), 737–748.
Kramer, S. L., and Seed, H. B. (1988). “Initiation of soil liquefaction under static loading conditions.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 412–430.
Kuerbis, R. (1989). “The effect of gradation and fines content on the undrained loading response of sand.” M.A.Sc. thesis, Univ. of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
Kulasingam, R., Malvick, E. J., Boulanger, R. W., and Kutter, B. L. (2004). “Strength loss and localization at silt interlayers in slopes of liquefied sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1192–1202.
Kulhawy, F. H., and Mayne, P. H. (1990). “Manual on estimating soil properties for foundation design.” Rep. No. 1493-6, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Palo Alto, CA, 2–38.
Lade, P. V. (1992). “Static instability and liquefaction of loose fine sandy slopes.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 51–71.
Lade, P. V., Yamamuro, J. A., and Bopp, P. A. (2006). “Drained and undrained strengths of sand in axisymmetric tests at high pressures.” Proc., 2nd Japan-U.S. Workshop on Testing, Modeling, and Simulation in Geomechanics, ASCE, Reston, VA, 87–102.
Lee, C.-J. (1995). “Static shear and liquefaction potential of sand.” Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, Univ. of Missouri, Rolla, MO.
Malvick, E. J., Kutter, B. L., and Boulanger, R. W. (2008). “Postshaking shear strain localization in a centrifuge model of a saturated sand slope.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 164–174.
McRoberts, E. C., and Sladen, J. A. (1992). “Observations on static and cyclic sand-liquefaction methodologies.” Can. Geotech. J., 29(4), 650–665.
Meneses-Loja, J., Ishihara, K., and Towhata, I. (2000). “Flow failure of saturated sand under simultaneous monotonic and cyclic stresses.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 131–138.
Mesri, G. (2007). “Yield strength and critical strength of liquefiable sands in sloping ground.” Géotechnique, 57(3), 309–311.
Mróz, Z., Boukpeti, N., and Drescher, A. (2003). “Constitutive model for static liquefaction.” Int. J. Geomech., 133–144.
Muhammad, K. (2012). “Case history-based analysis of liquefaction in sloping ground.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL.
Murthy, T. G., Loukidis, D., Carraro, J. A. H., Prezzi, M., and Salgado, R. (2007). “Undrained monotonic response of clean and silty sands.” Géotechnique, 57(3), 273–288.
Nakata, Y., Hyodo, M., Murata, H., and Yasufuku, N. (1998). “Flow deformation of sands subjected to principal stress rotation.” Soils Found., 38(2), 115–128.
Okura, Y., Kitahara, H., and Sammori, T. (2000). “Fluidization in dry landslides.” Eng. Geol., 56(3–4), 347–360.
Olson, S. M. (2001). “Liquefaction analysis of level and sloping ground using field case histories and penetration resistance.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL.
Olson, S. M., and Stark, T. D. (2002). “Liquefied strength ratio from liquefaction flow failure case histories.” Can. Geotech. J., 39(3), 629–647.
Olson, S. M., and Stark, T. D. (2003). “Yield strength ratio and liquefaction analysis of slopes and embankments.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 727–737.
Omar, T. (2013). “Specimen size effect on shear behavior of loose sand in triaxial testing.” M.E.Sc. thesis, Western Univ., London, Canada.
Park, S.-S., and Byrne, P. M. (2004). “Practical constitutive model for soil liquefaction.” Proc., 9th Int. Symp. on Numerical Models in Geomechanics (NUMOG IX), G. N. Pande and S. Pietruszczak, eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 181–187.
Pitman, T. D., Robertson, P. K., and Sego, D. C. (1994). “Influence of fines on the collapse of loose sands.” Can. Geotech. J., 31(5), 728–739.
Poulos, S. J. (1981). “The steady state of deformation.” J. Geotech. Engrg. Div., 107(5), 553–562.
Poulos, S. J. (1988). “Liquefaction and related phenomena.” Advanced dam engineering for design, construction, and rehabilitation, R. B. Jansen, ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 292–320.
Riemer, M. F. (1992). “The effects of testing conditions on the constitutive behavior of loose, saturated sand under monotonic loading.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA.
Riemer, M. F., and Seed, R. B. (1997). “Factors affecting apparent position of steady-state line.” J. Geotech. Geoenvirion. Eng., 281–288.
Roscoe, K. H., Schofield, A. N., and Wroth, C. P. (1958). “On the yielding of soils.” Géotechnique, 8(1), 22–53.
Sadrekarimi, A. (2009). “Development of a new ring shear apparatus for investigating the critical state of sands.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL.
Sadrekarimi, A., and Olson, S. M. (2010a). “Particle damage observed in ring shear tests on sands.” Can. Geotech. J., 47(5), 497–515.
Sadrekarimi, A., and Olson, S. M. (2010b). “Shear band formation observed in ring shear tests on sandy soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 366–375.
Sasitharan, S., Robertson, P. K., Sego, D. C., and Morgenstern, N. R. (1994). “State-boundary surface for very loose sand and its practical implications.” Can. Geotech. J., 31(3), 321–334.
Seid-Karbasi, M., and Byrne, P. M. (2007). “Seismic liquefaction, lateral spreading, and flow slides: A numerical investigation into void redistribution.” Can. Geotech. J., 44(7), 873–890.
Skirrow, R. K. (1996). “The effects of fines content on the monotonic triaxial testing of cohesionless soils for evaluation of in-situ state.” M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
Sladen, J. A., D'Hollander, R. D., and Krahn, J. (1985). “The liquefaction of sands, a collapse surface approach.” Can. Geotech. J., 22(4), 564–578.
Sladen, J. A., and Handford, G. (1987). “A potential systematic error in laboratory testing of very loose sands.” Can. Geotech. J., 24(3), 462–466.
Stark, T. D., and Mesri, G. (1992). “Undrained shear strength of liquefied sands for stability analysis.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 1727–1747.
Stark, T. D., and Olson, S. M. (1995). “Liquefaction resistance using CPT and field case histories.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 856–869.
Takeshita, S., Takeishi, M., and Tamada, K. (1995). “Static liquefaction of sands and its liquefaction index.” Proc., 1st Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 177–182.
Tsomokos, A., and Georgiannou, V. N. (2010). “Effect of grain shape and angularity on the undrained response of fine sands.” Can. Geotech. J., 47(5), 539–551.
Uthayakumar, M., and Vaid, Y. P. (1998). “Static liquefaction of sands under multiaxial loading.” Can. Geotech. J., 35(2), 273–283.
Vaid, Y. P., and Chern, J. C. (1985). “Cyclic and monotonic undrained response of saturated sands.” Proc., Advances in the Art of Testing Soils under Cyclic Conditions, ASCE, Reston, VA, 120–147.
Vaid, Y. P., Stedman, J. D., and Sivathayalan, S. (2001). “Confining stress and static shear effects in cyclic liquefaction.” Can. Geotech. J., 38(3), 580–591.
Vaid, Y. P., and Thomas, J. (1995). “Liquefaction and postliquefaction behavior of sand.” J. Geotech. Engrg., 163–173.
Verdugo, R. (1992). “Characterization of sandy soil behavior under large deformation.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Tokyo, Tokyo.
Verdugo, R., and Ishihara, K. (1996). “The steady state of sandy soils.” Soils Found., 36(2), 81–91.
Wanatowski, D., and Chu, J. (2007). “Static liquefaction of sand in plane strain.” Can. Geotech. J., 44(3), 299–313.
Wang, F. W., Sassa, K., and Wang, G. (2002). “Mechanism of a long-runout landslide triggered by the August 1998 heavy rainfall in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan.” Eng. Geol., 63(1–2), 169–185.
Wang, J. (2005). “The stress-strain and strength characteristics of Portaway sand.” Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K.
Wang, X. (2008). “Geotechnical analysis of flow slides, debris flows, and related phenomena.” Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
Wride, C. E., and Robertson, P. K. (1997). “Phase I and III data review report (Mildred Lake and J-pit sites, Syncrude Canada Ltd.).” CANLEX Technical Rep., Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
Yamamuro, J. A., and Covert, K. M. (2001). “Monotonic and cyclic liquefaction of very loose sands with high silt content.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 314–324.
Yoshimine, M., and Ishihara, K. (1998). “Flow potential of sand during liquefaction.” Soils Found., 38(3), 187–196.
Yoshimine, M., Ishihara, K., and Vargas, W. (1998). “Effects of principal stress direction and intermediate principal stress on undrained shear behavior of sand.” Soils Found., 38(3), 179–188.
Yoshimine, M., Robertson, P. K., and Wride, C. E. (1999). “Undrained shear strength of clean sands to trigger flow liquefaction.” Can. Geotech. J., 36(5), 891–906.
Zhang, H. M., and Garga, V. K. (1997). “Quasi-steady state: A real behaviour?” Can. Geotech. J., 34(5), 749–761.
Zlatovic, S., and Ishihara, K. (1997). “Normalized behavior of very loose non-plastic soils: Effects of fabric.” Soils Found., 37(4), 47–56.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 140 • Issue 12 • December 2014
Copyright
© 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Aug 22, 2013
Accepted: Jul 23, 2014
Published online: Aug 19, 2014
Published in print: Dec 1, 2014
Discussion open until: Jan 19, 2015
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.