Rainfall Infiltration and Water-Retention Characteristics of Rockfill Material
Publication: International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 22, Issue 3
Abstract
Comprehending the rainfall infiltration process in rockfill is essential for estimating the strength and unsaturated wetting deformation behaviors of rock structures. This paper presents an experimental study on the rainfall infiltration characteristics and water-retention capacity of a weakly weathered granite rockfill using a newly developed instrument that can generate artificial rainfalls with controllable intensities (0–500 mm/h) and sufficient uniformities. A group of rainfall infiltration tests and drainage tests were carried out using rockfill specimens with a diameter of 600 mm and a height of 1,200 mm. Results show that rainfall infiltration, which is characterized by the downward movement of the wetting front, experiences an unsaturated process even under heavy rainfall conditions. Both the steady-infiltration water content and the velocity of the wetting front increase nonlinearly with increasing rainfall intensity. The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of rockfill material can be acceptably estimated by classic models for medium-to-fine grained soils. In addition, the drainage process in rockfill is divided into two stages of quick-drainage and slow-drainage by the turning water content. The quick-drainage stage typically lasts for a brief time (e.g., a few minutes), followed by the slow-drainage stage with small decreases (about 2%–3%) in water content. In the end, the concept of water transmission in medium-to-large pores and water retention in small pores were used to characterize the rainfall infiltration and drainage characteristics. The rockfill possesses good seepage/drainage qualities owing to the excellent connectivity of relatively large pores, whereas the water-retention capacity is mainly attributed to the small pores.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the financial support from the National Key Research and Development Program during the 13th Five-Year Plan of China (Grant No. 2017YFC0404802), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51979143), and the IWHR Research & Development Support Program (Grant No. GE0145B562017).
References
Abudi, I., G. Carmi, and P. Berliner. 2012. “Rainfall simulator for field runoff studies.” J. Hydrol. 454–455: 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.05.056.
Aksoy, H., N. E. Unal, S. Cokgor, A. Gedikli, J. Yoon, K. Koca, S. B. Inci, and E. Eris. 2012. “A rainfall simulator for laboratory-scale assessment of rainfall-runoff-sediment transport processes over a two-dimensional flume.” Catena 98: 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.06.009.
Alonso, E. E., S. Olivella, and N. M. Pinyol. 2005. “A review of Beliche dam.” Géotechnique 55 (4): 267–285. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2005.55.4.267.
ASTM. 2010. Standard test methods for measurement of hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. ASTM D7664. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Broadbridge, P., and I. White. 1988. “Constant rate rainfall infiltration: A versatile nonlinear model: 1. Analytic solution.” Water Resour. Res. 24 (1): 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR024i001p00145.
Brooks, R. H., and A. T. Corey. 1964. Hydraulic properties of porous media. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State Univ.
Buckingham, E. 1907. Studies on the movement of soil moisture. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Government Printing Office.
Carvalho, S. C. P., J. L. M. P. de Lima, and M. I. P. de Lima. 2014. “Using meshes to change the characteristics of simulated rainfall produced by spray nozzles.” Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res. 2 (2): 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-6339(15)30007-1.
Chen, L., and M. H. Young. 2006. “Green-Ampt infiltration model for sloping surfaces.” Water Resour. Res. 42 (7): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005wr004468.
Chevone, B. I., Y. S. Yang, W. E. Winner, I. Storks-Cotter, and S. J. Long. 1984. “A rainfall simulator for laboratory use in acidic precipitation studies.” J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 34 (4): 355–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1984.10465755.
Clapp, R. B., and G. M. Hornberger. 1978. “Empirical equations for some soil hydraulic properties.” Water Resour. Res. 14 (4): 601–604. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR014i004p00601.
Delta-T Devices Ltd. 2008. User manual for the profile probe-type PR2. Cambridge, UK: Delta-T Devices.
Duda, M., and J. Renner. 2013. “The weakening effect of water on the brittle failure strength of sandstone.” Geophys. J. Int. 192 (3): 1091–1108. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggs090.
Fala, O., M. Aubertin, J. Molson, B. Bussière, G. W. Wilson, R. Chapuis, and V. Martin. 2003. “Numerical modelling of unsaturated flow in uniform and heterogeneous waste rock piles.” In Proc., 6th Int. Conf. on Acid Rock Drainage, 895–902. Cairns, Australia: Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Fredlund, D. G., and A. Xing. 1994. “Equations for the soil–water characteristic curve.” Can. Geotech. J. 31 (4): 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-061.
Fredlund, D. G., A. Xing, and S. Huang. 1994. “Predicting the permeability function for unsaturated soils using the soil–water characteristic curve.” Can. Geotech. J. 31 (4): 533–546. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-062.
Fuentes, C., R. Haverkamp, and J.-Y. Parlange. 1992. “Parameter constraints on closed-form soilwater relationships.” J. Hydrol. 134 (1): 117–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(92)90032-Q.
Heber Green, W., and G. A. Ampt. 1911. “Studies on soil physics.” J. Agric. Sci. 4 (1): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859600001441.
Heshmati, A. A., A. R. Tabibnejad, H. Salehzadeh, and S. Hashemi Tabatabaei. 2015. “Experimental evaluation of collapse deformation behavior of a rockfill material.” Int. J. Civ. Eng. 13 (1): 40–53.
Hignett, C. T., S. Gusli, A. Cass, and W. Besz. 1995. “An automated laboratory rainfall simulation system with controlled rainfall intensity, raindrop energy and soil drainage.” Soil Technol. 8 (1): 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0933-3630(95)00004-2.
Horton, R. E. 1941. “An approach toward a physical interpretation of infiltration capacity.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 5 (C): 399–417. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1941.036159950005000C0075x.
Huang, J., P. Wu, and X. Zhao. 2013. “Effects of rainfall intensity, underlying surface and slope gradient on soil infiltration under simulated rainfall experiments.” Catena 104: 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.10.013.
Hunt, E. D., K. G. Hubbard, D. A. Wilhite, T. J. Arkebauer, and A. L. Dutcher. 2009. “The development and evaluation of a soil moisture index.” Int. J. Climatol. 29 (5): 747–759. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1749.
Jia, Y., B. Xu, C. S. Desai, S. Chi, and B. Xiang. 2020. “Rockfill particle breakage generated by wetting deformation under the complex stress path.” Int. J. Geomech. 20 (10): 04020166. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001789.
Justo, J. L., and J. Saura. 1983. “Three-dimensional analysis of Infiernillo dam during construction and filling of the reservoir.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 7 (2): 225–243. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.1610070207.
Lee, L. M., A. Kassim, and N. Gofar. 2011. “Performances of two instrumented laboratory models for the study of rainfall infiltration into unsaturated soils.” Eng. Geol. 117 (1): 78–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.10.007.
Lu, N., and W. J. Likos. 2004. Unsaturated soil mechanics. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Martin, V., M. Aubertin, B. Bussiere, and P. Chapuis. 2004. “Evaluation of unsaturated flow in mine waste rock.” In Proc., 57th Canadian Geotechnical Conf. and the 5th Joint CGS-IAH Conf., 24–27. Montreal, QC: Canadian Geotechnical Society.
Mbonimpa, M., C. Bédard, M. Aubertin, and B. Bussière. 2004. “A model to predict the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity from basic soil properties.” In Proc., 57th Canadian Geotechnical Conf. and the 5th Joint CGS-IAH Conf., 16–23. Montreal, QC: Canadian Geotechnical Society.
McKee, C. R., and A. C. Bumb. 1987. “Flow-testing coalbed methane production wells in the presence of water and gas.” SPE Form. Eval. 2 (4): 599–608. https://doi.org/10.2118/14447-PA.
Morin, J., and Y. Benyamini. 1977. “Rainfall infiltration into bare soils.” Water Resour. Res. 13 (5): 813–817. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR013i005p00813.
Mualem, Y. 1976. “A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media.” Water Resour. Res. 12 (3): 513–522. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR012i003p00513.
Mutchler, C. K., and L. F. Hermsmeier. 1965. “A review of rainfall simulators.” Trans. ASAE 8 (1): 67–68. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.40428.
Naylor, D. J., E. M. D. Neves, D. Mattar, and A. A. V. Pinto. 1986. “Prediction of construction performance of Beliche Dam.” Géotechnique 36 (3): 359–376. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1986.36.3.359.
Ng, C. W. W., and A. K. Leung. 2012. “Measurements of drying and wetting permeability functions using a new stress-controllable soil column.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 138 (1): 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000560.
Ng, C. W. W., L. T. Zhan, C. G. Bao, D. G. Fredlund, and B. W. Gong. 2003. “Performance of an unsaturated expansive soil slope subjected to artificial rainfall infiltration.” Géotechnique 53 (2): 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2003.53.2.143.
Ong, J. B., Z. You, J. Mills-Beale, E. L. Tan, B. D. Pereles, and K. G. Ong. 2008. “A wireless, passive embedded sensor for real-time monitoring of water content in civil engineering materials.” IEEE Sens. J. 8 (12): 2053–2058. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2008.2007681.
Pall, R., W. T. Dickinson, D. Beals, and R. McGirr. 1983. “Development and calibration of a rainfall simulator.” Can. Agric. Eng. 25 (2): 181–187.
Philip, J. R. 1954. “An infiltration equation with physical significance.” Soil Sci. 77 (2): 153–158. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1941.036159950005000C0075x.
Poulsen, T. G., P. Moldrup, H. Wosten, and O. H. Jacobsen. 2004. “Predicting three-region unsaturated hydraulic conductivity from three soil–water retention points.” Soil Sci. 169 (3): 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ss.0000122527.03492.6c.
Poulsen, T. G., P. Moldrup, T. Yamaguchi, and O. H. Jacobsen. 1999. “Predicting saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in undisturbed soils from soil water characteristics.” Soil Sci. 164 (12): 877–887. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-199912000-00001.
Qin, Y. 2003. Soil physics. Beijing: Higher Education Press.
Reinson, J. R., D. G. Fredlund, and G. W. Wilson. 2005. “Unsaturated flow in coarse porous media.” Can. Geotech. J. 42 (1): 252–262. https://doi.org/10.1139/t04-070.
Russo, D. 1988. “Determining soil hydraulic properties by parameter estimation: On the selection of a model for the hydraulic properties.” Water Resour. Res. 24 (3): 453–459. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR024i003p00453.
Simms, P. H., and E. K. Yanful. 2004. “Estimation of soil–water characteristic curve of clayey till using measured pore-size distributions.” J. Environ. Eng. 130 (8): 847–854. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2004)130:8(847).
Singh, D. N., and S. J. Kuriyan. 2003. “Estimation of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity using soil suction measurements obtained by an insertion tensiometer.” Can. Geotech. J. 40 (2): 476–483. https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-112.
Stormont, J. C., and C. E. Anderson. 1999. “Capillary barrier effect from underlying coarser soil layer.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 125 (8): 641–648. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1999)125:8(641).
Strobl, B. 1991. Die NATM in Böden in Kombination mit Druckluft. Graz, Austria: Technische Universität Graz.
Swanson, D., G. Savci, G. Danziger, R. N. Mohr, and T. Weiskopf. 1999. “Predicting the soil–water characteristics of mine soils.” In Proc., 6th Int. Conf. on Tailings and Mine Waste, 345–349. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
van Genuchten, M. T. 1980. “A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44 (5): 892–898. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x.
Walker, J. P., G. R. Willgoose, and J. D. Kalma. 2004. “In situ measurement of soil moisture: A comparison of techniques.” J. Hydrol. 293 (1): 85–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.01.008.
Wang, K., X. Yang, X. Liu, and C. Liu. 2017. “A simple analytical infiltration model for short-duration rainfall.” J. Hydrol. 555: 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.09.049.
Williams, J., R. Prebble, W. Williams, and C. Hignett. 1983. “The influence of texture, structure and clay mineralogy on the soil moisture characteristic.” Soil Res. 21 (1): 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR9830015.
Yin, Y., B. Y. Zhang, J. H. Zhang, and G. L. Sun. 2016. “Effect of densification on shear strength behavior of argillaceous siltstone subjected to variations in weathering-related physical and mechanical conditions.” Eng. Geol. 208: 63–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.04.028.
Zhan, T. L. T., and C. W. W. Ng. 2004. “Analytical analysis of rainfall infiltration mechanism in unsaturated soils.” Int. J. Geomech. 4 (4): 273–284. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1532-3641(2004)4:4(273).
Zhan, T. L. T., C. W. W. Ng, and D. G. Fredlund. 2007. “Field study of rainfall infiltration into a grassed unsaturated expansive soil slope.” Can. Geotech. J. 44 (4): 392–408. https://doi.org/10.1139/t07-001.
Zhang, B. Y., J. H. Zhang, and G. L. Sun. 2012. “Particle breakage of argillaceous siltstone subjected to stresses and weathering.” Eng. Geol. 137–138: 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.03.009.
Zhang, B. Y., J. H. Zhang, and G. L. Sun. 2015. “Deformation and shear strength of rockfill materials composed of soft siltstones subjected to stress, cyclical drying/wetting and temperature variations.” Eng. Geol. 190: 87–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.03.006.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 22 • Issue 3 • March 2022
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 1, 2020
Accepted: Nov 1, 2021
Published online: Dec 23, 2021
Published in print: Mar 1, 2022
Discussion open until: May 23, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.