Seismic Performance of Multimegawatt Offshore Wind Turbines in Liquefiable Soil under Horizontal and Vertical Motions
Publication: International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 22, Issue 3
Abstract
Various multimegawatt capacity offshore wind turbines (OWTs) are constructed globally to fulfill increasing energy demand. Many of these structures have already been and will continue to be constructed in seismically active areas. Hence, these structures are at probable risk of an earthquake. The dynamic behavior of monopile-supported various multimegawatt OWTs in liquefiable sand deposit under combined action of operational and seismic loads are investigated in this study. A three-dimensional beam on a nonlinear Winkler foundation model is developed in OpenSees. The monopile and the tower are modeled as a linear Euler–Bernoulli beam. The lateral and vertical pile–soil interfacing behavior is modeled by using p-y, t-z, and q-z spring elements. The strong ground motion is utilized as free-field displacement at spring supports. The effect of the vertical component of seismic motion on the performance of the OWT structure in liquefied soil is examined.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the anonymous reviewers for their critical comments, which have helped improve the work.
References
ABS (American Bureau of Shipping). 1997. Rules for building and classing offshore installation. Houston, TX: ABS.
Adhikari, S., and S. Bhattacharya. 2012. “Dynamic analysis of wind turbine towers on flexible foundations.” Shock Vib. 19 (1): 37–56. https://doi.org/10.3233/SAV-2012-0615.
Ali, A., R. De Risi, A. Sextos, K. Goda, and Z. Chang. 2020. “Seismic vulnerability of offshore wind turbines to pulse and nonpulse records.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 49 (1): 24–50. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.3222.
Andersen, L. V., M. J. Vahdatirad, M. T. Sichani, and J. D. Sørensen. 2012. “Natural frequencies of wind turbines on monopile foundations in clayey soils—A probabilistic approach.” Comput. Geotech. 43: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2012.01.010.
API (American Petroleum Institute). 2011. Geotechnical and foundation design considerations. API-RP-2GEO. Washington, DC: API.
Arany, L., S. Bhattacharya, J. Macdonald, and S. J. Hogan. 2015. “Simplified critical mudline bending moment spectra of offshore wind turbine support structures.” Wind Energy 18 (12): 2171–2197. https://doi.org/10.1002/we.1812.
Arany, L., S. Bhattacharya, J. Macdonald, and S. J. Hogan. 2017. “Design of monopiles for offshore wind turbines in 10 steps.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 92: 126–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2016.09.024.
Aygün, B., L. Dueñas-Osorio, J. E. Padgett, and R. DesRoches. 2011. “Efficient longitudinal seismic fragility assessment of a multispan continuous steel bridge on liquefiable soils.” J. Bridge Eng. 16 (1): 93–107. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000131.
Bak, C., F. Zahle, R. Bitsche, T. Kim, A. Yde, L. C. Henriksen, M. H. Hansen, J. P. A. A. Blasques, M. Gaunaa, and A. Natarajan. 2013. “The DTU 10-MW reference wind turbine.” In Danish Wind Power Research. Lyngby, Denmark: Technical Univ. of Denmark.
Bhattacharya, S., and K. Goda. 2016. “Use of offshore wind farms to increase seismic resilience of nuclear power plants.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 80: 65–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2015.10.001.
Bhattacharya, S., et al. 2021. “Physical modelling of offshore wind turbine foundations for TRL (technology readiness level) studies.” J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 9 (6): 589. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9060589.
Boulanger, R. W., C. J. Curras, B. L. Kutter, D. W. Wilson, and A. Abghari. 1999. “Seismic soil-pile-structure interaction experiments and analyses.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 125 (9): 750–759. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1999)125:9(750).
Bozorgnia, Y., S. A. Mahin, and A. G. Brady. 1998. “Vertical response of twelve structures recorded during the Northridge earthquake.” Earthquake Spectra 14 (3): 411–432. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.1586008.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2007. Design of steel structures - part 1-6: Strength and stability of shell structures. EN 1993-1-6. Eurocode 3. Brussels, Belgium: CEN.
Cui, C., H. Jiang, and Y. H. Li. 2012. “Semi-analytical method for calculating vibration characteristics of variable cross-section beam.” J. Vib. Shock 31 (14): 85–88.
Damgaard, M., L. B. Ibsen, L. V. Andersen, and J. K. Andersen. 2013. “Cross-wind modal properties of offshore wind turbines identified by full scale testing.” J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 116: 94–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2013.03.003.
De Risi, R., S. Bhattacharya, and K. Goda. 2018. “Seismic performance assessment of monopile-supported offshore wind turbines using unscaled natural earthquake records.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 109: 154–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.03.015.
DNV (Det Norske Veritas). 2001. Guidelines for design of wind turbines. Copenhagen, Denmark: Wind Energy Dept. of Risø National Laboratory and DNV.
DNV (Det Norske Veritas). 2002. Guidelines for design of wind turbines. 2nd ed. Hovik, Denmark: DNV/Riso.
DNV (Det Norske Veritas). 2010. Environmental conditions and environmental loads. DNV-RP-C205. Hovik, Denmark: DNV.
DNV (Det Norske Veritas). 2013. Design of offshore wind turbine structures. DNV-OS-J101. Hovik, Denmark: DNV.
DNV (Det Norske Veritas). 2016. Design of offshore wind turbine structures. DNVGL-ST-0126. Hovik, Denmark: DNV.
Elgamal, A., Z. Yang, E. Parra, and A. Ragheb. 2003. “Modeling of cyclic mobility in saturated cohesionless soils.” Int. J. Plast. 19 (6): 883–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-6419(02)00010-4.
Esfeh, P. K., and A. M. Kaynia. 2020. “Earthquake response of monopiles and caissons for offshore wind turbines founded in liquefiable soil.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 136: 106213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106213.
Fischer, T. A. 2006. “Load mitigation of an offshore wind turbine by optimization of aerodynamic damping and vibration control.” M.Sc. thesis, Wind Energy Dept., Technical Univ. of Denmark.
Gaertner, E., et al. 2020. IEA wind TCP task 37: Definition of the IEA 15-megawatt offshore reference wind turbine.” Rep. No. NREL/TP-5000-75698. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Ghosh, B., N. Peiris, and Z. Lubkowski. 2007. “Assessment of seismic risk for the design of offshore structures in liquefiable soil.” In Proc., 4th Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
GL (Germanischer Lloyd). 2010. Guideline for the certification of wind turbines. Hamburg, Germany: GL.
Goyal, A., and A. K. Chopra. 1989. “Simplified evaluation of added hydrodynamic mass for intake towers.” J. Eng. Mech. 115 (7): 1393–1412. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(1989)115:7(1393.
Gulhati, S. K. 1989. “Geotechnical aspects of the Indian offshore environment.” In Proc., 31st Annual General Session, Indian Geotechnical Conf. New Delhi, India: Indian Geotechnical Society.
Hovind, E., and A. M. Kaynia. 2014. “Earthquake response of wind turbine with non-linear soil structure interaction.” In Proc., 9th Int. Conf. on Structural Dynamics, EURODYN 2014, 623–630. Germany: European Association for Structural Dynamics (EASD).
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission). 2005. Wind turbines—part 1: Design requirements. IEC 61400-1. Geneva: IEC.
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission). 2009. Wind turbines—Part 3: Design requirements of offshore turbines. 1st ed. IEC 61400-3. Geneva: IEC.
Jara, F. A. V. 2006. “Model testing of foundations for offshore wind turbines.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Mathematical, Physical & Life Sciences Division - Engineering Science, Univ. of Oxford.
Jonkman, J., S. Butterfield, W. Musial, and G. Scott. 2009. Definition of a 5-MW reference wind turbine for offshore system development. Rep. No. NREL/TP-500-38060. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Joyner, W. B., and A. T. Chen. 1975. “Calculation of nonlinear ground response in earthquakes.” Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 65 (5): 1315–1336.
Katsanos, E. I., A. A. Sanz, C. T. Georgakis, and S. Thöns. 2017. “Multi-hazard response analysis of a 5MW offshore wind turbine.” Procedia Eng. 199: 3206–3211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.09.548.
Kaynia, A. M. 2019. “Seismic considerations in design of offshore wind turbines.” Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 124: 399–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.04.038.
Kjørlaug, R. A., and A. M. Kaynia. 2015. “Vertical earthquake response of megawatt-sized wind turbine with soil-structure interaction effects.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 44 (13): 2341–2358. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.2590.
Kourkoulis, R. S., P. C. Lekkakis, F. M. Gelagoti, and A. M. Kaynia. 2014. “Suction caisson foundations for offshore wind turbines subjected to wave and earthquake loading: Effect of soil–foundation interface.” Géotechnique 64 (3): 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.12.P.179.
Kühn, M. J. 2001. “Dynamics and design optimisation of offshore wind energy conversion systems.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft Univ. Wind Energy Research Institute.
Lesny, K., and Wiemann, J. 2006. “Finite-element-modelling of large diameter monopiles for offshore wind energy converters.” In GeoCongress 2006: Geotechnical Engineering in the Information Technology Age, edited by D. J. DeGroot, J. T. DeJong, D. Frost, and L. G. Baise, 1–6. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Liaw, C. Y., and A. K. Chopra. 1974. “Dynamics of towers surrounded by water.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 3 (1): 33–49. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.4290030104.
Lombardi, D., S. Bhattacharya, and D. M. Wood. 2013. “Dynamic soil–structure interaction of monopile supported wind turbines in cohesive soil.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 49: 165–180.
Lu, J. 2006. “Parallel finite element modeling of earthquake ground response and liquefaction.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Structural Engineering, Univ. of California San Diego.
Lysmer, J. 1978. Analytical procedures in soil dynamics. Rep. No. UCB/EERC-78/29. Richmond, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Center.
Lysmer, J., and R. L. Kuhlemeyer. 1969. “Finite dynamic model for infinite media.” J. Eng. Mech. Div. 95 (4): 859–877. https://doi.org/10.1061/JMCEA3.0001144.
Mazzoni, S., F. McKenna, and G. L. Fenves. 2006. Open system for earthquake engineering simulation (OpenSees) user manual. Berkeley, CA: Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California.
McKenna, F., M. H. Scott, and G. L. Fenves. 2010. “Nonlinear finite-element analysis software architecture using object composition.” J. Comput. Civ. Eng. 24 (1): 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CP.1943-5487.0000002.
Mosher, R. L. 1984. Load-transfer criteria for numerical analysis of axially loaded piles in sand. Part 1: Load-transfer criteria. Final Rep. Vicksburg, MS: Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
Parra, E. 1996. “Numerical modelling of liquefaction and lateral ground deformation including cyclic mobility and dilation response in soil systems.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
Patil, A., S. Jung, and O.-S. Kwon. 2016. “Structural performance of a parked wind turbine tower subjected to strong ground motions.” Eng. Struct. 120: 92–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.04.020.
Patra, S. K., and Haldar, S. 2020. “Fore-aft and the side-to-side response of monopile supported offshore wind turbine in liquefiable soil.” Mar. Georesour. Geotechnol. https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2020.1843570.
Patra, S. K., and S. Haldar. 2021a. “Long-term drained and post-liquefaction cyclic behaviour of offshore wind turbine in silty sand using element tests.” Arabian J. Sci. Eng. 46 (5): 4791–4810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-020-05167-1.
Patra, S. K., and S. Haldar. 2021b. “Seismic response of monopile supported offshore wind turbine in liquefiable soil.” Structures 31: 248–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2021.01.095.
Poulos, H. G. 1989. “Pile behaviour—Theory and application.” Géotechnique 39 (3): 365–415. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1989.39.3.365.
Prowell, I., A. Elgamal, C. Uang, and J. Jonkman. 2010. Estimation of seismic load demand for a wind turbine in the time domain. NREL/CP-500-47536. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Ritschel, U., I. Warnke, J. Kirchner, and B. Meussen. 2003. “Wind turbines and earthquakes.” In Proc., 2nd World Wind Energy Conf., 1–8. Cape Town, South Africa: World Wind Energy Association.
Seed, H. B., and I. M. Idriss. 1971. “Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 97 (9): 1249–1273. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.0001662.
Van Binh, L., T. Ishihara, P. Van Phuc, and Y. Fujino. 2008. “A peak factor for non-Gaussian response analysis of wind turbine tower.” J. Wind. Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 96 (10-11): 2217–2227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2008.02.019.
Vijivergiya, V. N. 1977. “Load-movement characteristics of piles.” In Vol. 2 of Proc., 4th Symp. of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division., 269–284. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Wang, P., M. Zhao, X. Du, J. Liu, and C. Xu. 2018. “Wind, wave and earthquake responses of offshore wind turbine on monopile foundation in clay.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 113: 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.04.028.
Wang, X., X. Yang, and X. Zeng. 2017. “Seismic centrifuge modelling of suction bucket foundation for offshore wind turbine.” Renewable Energy 114: 1013–1022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.07.103.
Wilson, D. W. 1998. “Soil-pile-superstructure interaction in liquefying sand and soft clay.” Doctoral dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis.
Wilson, J. F. 2003. Dynamics of offshore structure. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Yang, Z., and A. Elgamal. 2002. “Influence of permeability on liquefaction-induced shear deformation.” J. Eng. Mech. 128 (7): 720–729. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(2002)128:7(720).
Zhang, P., K. Xiong, H. Ding, and C. Le. 2014. “Anti-liquefaction characteristics of composite bucket foundations for offshore wind turbines.” J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 6 (5): 053102. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4895909.
Zheng, X. Y., H. Li, W. Rong, and W. Li. 2015. “Joint earthquake and wave action on the monopile wind turbine foundation: An experimental study.” Mar. Struct. 44: 125–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2015.08.003.
Zuo, H., K. Bi, H. Hao, and C. Li. 2019. “Influence of earthquake ground motion modelling on the dynamic responses of offshore wind turbines.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 121: 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.03.008.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 22 • Issue 3 • March 2022
Copyright
© 2021 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 7, 2021
Accepted: Oct 24, 2021
Published online: Dec 23, 2021
Published in print: Mar 1, 2022
Discussion open until: May 23, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Amin Eslami, Ali Ghorbani, Assessment of Near-Field Strong Ground Motion Effects on Offshore Wind Turbines Resting on Liquefiable Soils Using Fully Coupled Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 10.1061/JGGEFK.GTENG-11121, 149, 11, (2023).
- Weiyun Chen, Yujie Jiang, Lingyu Xu, Chao Liu, Guoxing Chen, Piguang Wang, Seismic response of hybrid pile-bucket foundation supported offshore wind turbines located in liquefiable soils, Ocean Engineering, 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.113519, 269, (113519), (2023).
- Sangeet Kumar Patra, Sumanta Haldar, Subhamoy Bhattacharya, Predicting tilting of monopile supported wind turbines during seismic liquefaction, Ocean Engineering, 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.111145, 252, (111145), (2022).
- Maria James, Sumanta Haldar, Seismic vulnerability of jacket supported large offshore wind turbine considering multidirectional ground motions, Structures, 10.1016/j.istruc.2022.06.049, 43, (407-423), (2022).