Hydrodynamics and Mixing Characteristics in Different-Size Aspirator Bottles for Water-Accommodated Fraction Tests
Publication: Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 146, Issue 3
Abstract
The preparation of the water-accommodated fraction (WAF) is important for evaluating the toxicity of oil. The Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Research Forum method, which uses a magnetic stirrer in aspirator bottles, is commonly used. Thus, it is investigated herein focusing on the hydrodynamics. The particle image velocimetry technique was applied to measure the fluid velocity and mixing characteristics of three bottles 2, 4, and 20 L in volume, respectively. The hydrodynamics and mixing performance of cases without an air tube and cases in which the air tube occupied approximately 22.5% of the water height were considered. The energy dissipation rates were highest near the center of the bottles, and the average values ranged from in the no-air-tube bottles to approximately in the air-tube bottles. The latter value is comparable to non-breaking waves or small breakers (0.4 m in height). Knowing the rotation speed, one can use the results and the computed power number, , to obtain the energy dissipation rates in comparable bottles. A new concept, vessel efficiency (), was introduced and represents the product of the energy dissipation rate in the impeller region and the residence time of water in this region. The of cases without and with air tube vessels showed that significantly increased with an air tube in each bottle. The for cases with an air tube also increased with bottle size due to the high residence time in the impeller region. The hydrodynamics investigation herein provides a foundation for interpreting the droplet size distribution in actual WAF and chemically enhanced water-accommodated fraction tests.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code generated or used during the study including the PIV data obtained at each subsection of each bottle are available from the corresponding author by request.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by funding from the National Contaminants Advisory Group (NCAG) within Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO).
References
Aliyu, A. M., H. Seo, H. Kim, and K. C. Kim. 2018. “Characteristics of bubble-induced liquid flows in a rectangular tank.” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 97 (Oct): 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2018.04.003.
Altarawneh, K. K. 2015. “The effect of stirring on diffusion measurements using the diagram cell setup.” Spec. Top. Rev. Porous Media: Int. J. 6 (4): 403–410.
Anderson, J. W., R. Riley, S. Kiesser, and J. Gurtisen. 1987. “Toxicity of dispersed and undispersed Prudhoe Bay crude oil fractions to shrimp and fish.” In Proc., Int. Oil Spill Conf. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.
Ashwood, A. C., S. J. Vanden Hogen, M. A. Rodarte, C. R. Kopplin, D. J. Rodríguez, E. T. Hurlburt, and T. A. Shedd. 2015. “A multiphase, micro-scale PIV measurement technique for liquid film velocity measurements in annular two-phase flow.” Int. J. Multiphase Flow 68 (Jan): 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2014.09.003.
Aurand, D., and G. Coelho. 2005. Cooperative aquatic toxicity testing of dispersed oil and the chemical response to oil spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum (CROSERF). Lusby, MD: Ecosystem Management & Associates.
Baldyga, J., and W. Podgórska. 1998. “Drop break-up in intermittent turbulence: Maximum stable and transient sizes of drops.” Can. J. Chem. Eng. 76 (3): 456–470. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.5450760316.
Bao, Y., Y. Lu, Q. Liang, L. Li, Z. Gao, X. Huang, and S. Qin. 2015. “Power demand and mixing performance of coaxial mixers in a stirred tank with CMC solution.” Chin. J. Chem. Eng. 23 (4): 623–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjche.2015.01.002.
Barron, M. G., and L. Ka’aihue. 2003. “Critical evaluation of CROSERF test methods for oil dispersant toxicity testing under subarctic conditions.” Mar. Pollut. Bull. 46 (9): 1191–1199. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(03)00125-5.
Bejarano, A. C., J. R. Clark, and G. M. Coelho. 2014. “Issues and challenges with oil toxicity data and implications for their use in decision making: A quantitative review.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 33 (4): 732–742. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.2501.
Bera, G., T. Parkerton, A. Redman, N. R. Turner, D. A. Renegar, J. L. Sericano, and A. H. Knap. 2018. “Passive dosing yields dissolved aqueous exposures of crude oil comparable to the CROSERF (Chemical response to oil spill: Ecological effects research forum) water accommodated fraction method.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 37 (11): 2810–2819. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4263.
Boufadel, M. C., F. Gao, L. Zhao, T. Özgökmen, R. Miller, T. King, B. Robinson, K. Lee, and I. Leifer. 2018. “Was the deepwater horizon well discharge churn flow? Implications on the estimation of the oil discharge and droplet size distribution.” Geophys. Res. Lett. 45 (5): 2396–2403. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL076606.
Boufadel, M. C., M. T. Suidan, and A. D. Venosa. 1999. “A numerical model for density-and-viscosity-dependent flows in two-dimensional variably saturated porous media.” J. Contam. Hydrol. 37 (1): 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7722(98)00164-8.
Bryan, K., K. Black, and R. Gorman. 2003. “Spectral estimates of dissipation rate within and near the surf zone.” J. Phys. Oceanogr. 33 (5): 979–993. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2003)033%3C0979:SEODRW%3E2.0.CO;2.
Cheng, C. Y., J. F. Atkinson, and M. I. Bursik. 1997. “Direct measurement of turbulence structures in mixing jar using PIV.” J. Environ. Eng. 123 (2): 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1997)123:2(115).
Coelho, G., J. Clark, and D. Aurand. 2013. “Toxicity testing of dispersed oil requires adherence to standardized protocols to assess potential real world effects.” Environ. Pollut. 177 (Jun): 185–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.004.
Davis, M., and D. Cornwell. 2012. Introduction to environmental engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Deen, N. G., T. Solberg, and B. H. Hjertager. 2002. “Flow generated by an aerated Rushton impeller: Two-phase PIV experiments and numerical simulations.” Can. J. Chem. Eng. 80 (4): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.5450800406.
Delvigne, G. A. L., and C. E. Sweeney. 1988. “Natural dispersion of oil.” Oil Chem. Pollut. 4 (4): 281–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-8579(88)80003-0.
Figueroa, G. V., J. R. Parga, J. L. Valenzuela, V. Vázquez, A. Valenzuela, and M. Rodriguez. 2016. “An improved process for precipitating cyanide ions from the barren solution at different PHs.” JOM 68 (2): 540–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-015-1746-4.
Gardiner, W. W., J. Q. Word, J. D. Word, R. A. Perkins, K. M. McFarlin, B. W. Hester, L. S. Word, and C. M. Ray. 2013. “The acute toxicity of chemically and physically dispersed crude oil to key arctic species under arctic conditions during the open water season.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 32 (10): 2284–2300. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.2307.
Grayman, W. M., L. A. Rossman, R. A. Deininger, C. D. Smith, C. N. Arnold, and J. F. Smith. 2004. “Mixing and aging of water in distribution system storage facilities.” J.-Am. Water Works Assoc. 96 (9): 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.2004.tb10704.x.
Halász, G., B. Gyüre, I. M. Jánosi, K. G. Szabó, and T. Tél. 2007. “Vortex flow generated by a magnetic stirrer.” Am. J. Phys 75 (12): 1092–1098. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2772287.
Hodson, P. V., J. Adams, and R. S. Brown. 2019. “Oil toxicity test methods must be improved.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 38 (2): 302–311. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4303.
Incardona, J. P., T. L. Swarts, R. C. Edmunds, T. L. Linbo, A. Aquilina-Beck, C. A. Sloan, L. D. Gardner, B. A. Block, and N. L. Scholz. 2013. “Exxon Valdez to deepwater horizon: Comparable toxicity of both crude oils to fish early life stages.” Aquat. Toxicol. 142 (Oct): 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2013.08.011.
Kähler, C. J., T. Astarita, P. P. Vlachos, J. Sakakibara, R. Hain, S. Discetti, R. La Foy, and C. Cierpka. 2016. “Main results of the 4th international PIV challenge.” Exp. Fluids 57 (6): 97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00348-016-2173-1.
Kaku, V. J., M. C. Boufadel, and A. D. Venosa. 2005. “Evaluation of turbulence parameters in laboratory flasks used for dispersant effectiveness testing.” In Proc., Int. Oil Spill Conf. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.
Kaku, V. J., M. C. Boufadel, and A. D. Venosa. 2006. “Evaluation of mixing energy in laboratory flasks used for dispersant effectiveness testing.” J. Environ. Eng. 132 (1): 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2006)132:1(93).
Kane Driscoll, S., J. Hauri, K. Kulacki, A. M. Morrison, M. McArdle, A. Schierz, K. Yozzo, and M. Edwards. 2016. “The influence of mixing energy on the concentration and composition of oil in laboratory toxicity tests.” In Proc., 37th Annual Meeting. Orlando, FL: SETAC.
Kresta, S. M., and P. E. Wood. 1993. “The flow field produced by a pitched blade turbine: Characterization of the turbulence and estimation of the dissipation rate.” Chem. Eng. Sci. 48 (10): 1761–1774. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(93)80346-R.
Lamarque, N., B. Zoppé, O. Lebaigue, Y. Dolias, M. Bertrand, and F. Ducros. 2010. “Large-eddy simulation of the turbulent free-surface flow in an unbaffled stirred tank reactor.” Chem. Eng. Sci. 65 (15): 4307–4322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2010.03.014.
Lee, J. H., J. P. Monty, J. Elsnab, A. Toffoli, A. V. Babanin, and A. Alberello. 2017. “Estimation of kinetic energy dissipation from breaking waves in the wave crest region.” J. Phys. Oceanogr. 47 (5): 1145–1150. https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0273.1.
MacVicar, B. J., E. Beaulieu, V. Champagne, and A. G. Roy. 2007. “Measuring water velocity in highly turbulent flows: Field tests of an electromagnetic current meter (ECM) and an acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV).” Earth Surf. Processes Landforms 32 (9): 1412–1432.
Mahmud, T., J. N. Haque, K. J. Roberts, D. Rhodes, and D. Wilkinson. 2009. “Measurements and modelling of free-surface turbulent flows induced by a magnetic stirrer in an unbaffled stirred tank reactor.” Chem. Eng. Sci. 64 (20): 4197–4209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2009.06.059.
McConville, M. M., J. P. Roberts, M. Boulais, B. Woodall, J. D. Butler, A. D. Redman, T. F. Parkerton, W. R. Arnold, J. Guyomarch, and S. LeFloch. 2018. “The sensitivity of a deep-sea fish species (Anoplopoma fimbria) to oil-associated aromatic compounds, dispersant, and Alaskan North Slope crude oil.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 37 (8): 2210–2221.
Mitchell Ferguson, T., I. Penesis, G. Macfarlane, and A. Fleming. 2017. “A PIV investigation of OWC operation in regular, polychromatic and irregular waves.” Renewable Energy 103 (Apr): 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.11.019.
Monin, A. S., and A. M. Yaglom. 1971. Statistical fluid mechanics. Cambridge, UK: MIT Press.
Paz, U., and H. Rubin. 1970. “Surface tension observation in distilled and saline water interface.” Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam. 9 (3): 509–511. https://doi.org/10.1021/i160035a036.
Prasser, H.-M., J. Zschau, D. Peters, G. Pietzsch, W. Taubert, and M. Trepte. 2000. Wire-mesh sensor-now 10,000 frames per second, 15. York, PA: Institute of Safety Research.
Qiu, F., Z. Liu, R. Liu, X. Quan, C. Tao, and Y. Wang. 2018. “Gas-liquid mixing performance, power consumption, and local void fraction distribution in stirred tank reactors with a rigid-flexile impeller.” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 97 (Oct): 351–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2018.04.006.
Redman, A. D., J. D. Butler, D. J. Letinski, and T. F. Parkerton. 2017. “Investigating the role of dissolved and droplet oil in aquatic toxicity using dispersed and passive dosing systems.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 36 (4): 1020–1028. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3624.
Rodriguez, A., A. Sanchez-Arcilla, J. Redondo, and C. Mösso. 1999. “Macroturbulence measurements with electromagnetic and ultrasonic sensors: A comparison under high-turbulent flows.” Exp. Fluids 27 (1): 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003480050326.
Rushton, J. H. 1950. “Power characteristics of mixing impellers part 1.” Chem. Eng. Prog. 46 (8): 395–404.
Sandoval, K., Y. Ding, and P. Gardinali. 2017. “Characterization and environmental relevance of oil water preparations of fresh and weathered MC-252 Macondo oils used in toxicology testing.” Sci. Total Environ. 576 (Jan): 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.171.
Sheng, J., H. Meng, and R. O. Fox. 2000. “A large eddy PIV method for turbulence dissipation rate estimation.” Chem. Eng. Sci. 55 (20): 4423–4434. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(00)00039-7.
Singer, M. M., D. Aurand, G. E. Bragin, J. R. Clark, G. M. Coelho, M. L. Sowby, and R. S. Tjeerdema. 2000. “Standardization of the preparation and quantitation of water-accommodated fractions of petroleum for toxicity testing.” Mar. Pollut. Bull. 40 (11): 1007–1016. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(00)00045-X.
Sorial, G. A., A. D. Venosa, K. M. Koran, E. Holder, and D. W. King. 2004. “Oil spill dispersant effectiveness protocol. I: Impact of operational variables.” J. Environ. Eng. 130 (10): 1073–1084. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2004)130:10(1073).
Steiros, K., P. J. Bruce, O. R. Buxton, and J. Vassilicos. 2017. “Power consumption and form drag of regular and fractal-shaped turbines in a stirred tank.” AlChE J. 63 (2): 843–854. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.15414.
Tajrishy, M. A., D. J. Hills, and G. Tchobanoglous. 1994. “Pretreatment of secondary effluent for drip irrigation.” J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 120 (4): 716–731. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1994)120:4(716).
Tchobanoglous, G., and F. L. Burton. 1979. Wastewater engineering: Treatment, disposal, and reuse. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tél, T., L. Kadi, I. Jánosi, and M. Vincze. 2018. “Experimental demonstration of the water-holding property of three-dimensional vortices.” EPL (Europhysics Letters) 123 (4): 44001. https://doi.org/10.1209/0295-5075/123/44001.
Tennekes, H., and J. L. Lumley. 1972. A first course in turbulence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wang, G., Y. Tian, and S. A. Kinnas. 2018. “Particle image velocimetry experiment and computational fluid dynamics simulation of flow around rigid cylinder.” J. Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng. 140 (5): 051801. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4039948.
Wickley-Olsen, E., M. C. Boufadel, T. King, Z. Li, K. Lee, and A. D. Venosa. 2007. “Regular and breaking waves in wave tank for dispersion effectiveness testing.” In Proc., Arctic and Marine Oil Spill. Ottawa: Environment Canada.
Zhao, L., M. C. Boufadel, E. Adams, S. A. Socolofsky, T. King, K. Lee, and T. Nedwed. 2015. “Simulation of scenarios of oil droplet formation from the Deepwater Horizon blowout.” Mar. Pollut. Bull. 101 (1): 304–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.10.068.
Zhao, L., J. Torlapati, M. C. Boufadel, T. King, B. Robinson, and K. Lee. 2014. “VDROP: A comprehensive model for droplet formation of oils and gases in liquids—Incorporation of the interfacial tension and droplet viscosity.” Chem. Eng. J. 253 (Oct): 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2014.04.082.
Zhao, L., B. Wang, M. Armenante Piero, R. Conmy, and C. Boufadel Michel. 2016. “Characterization of turbulent properties in the EPA baffled flask for dispersion effectiveness testing.” J. Environ. Eng. 142 (1): 04015044. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001000.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
©2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Dec 31, 2018
Accepted: Jul 29, 2019
Published online: Dec 19, 2019
Published in print: Mar 1, 2020
Discussion open until: May 19, 2020
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.