Field Demonstration of Biologically Active Zone Enhancement Using Acetate as a Sole Carbon Source for In Situ Reductive Transformation of RDX in Groundwater
Publication: Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management
Volume 11, Issue 2
Abstract
A field demonstration of acetate mediated biologically active zone enhancement (BAZE) for in situ reductive transformation of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) in groundwater was conducted at the former Nebraska Ordnance Plant (NOP). The primary objectives of the field demonstration were to assess the potential of the BAZE process to remediate the RDX-contaminated groundwater, and to quantify the capital and operation/maintenance costs associated with the use of the BAZE process for in situ treatment of RDX contamination in groundwater. The study also delineated the effects of the BAZE process on subsurface biomass, and water quality parameters (metals mobilization, total organic compound, etc.). The results of this 20-month field study demonstrated that acetate is an excellent source of carbon capable of creating reduced conditions conducive for reductive transformation of RDX in groundwater. Over the period of demonstration, the background RDX concentration of about was reduced to below the U.S. EPA’s health advisory level of . Besides significant reduction in RDX background concentrations, other chemical (low and nitrate denitrification) and biological (biomass buildup and enrichment) changes in the subsurface validated the development of a biologically active zone after the amendment addition. A total of runway deicer ( acetate) was injected into the subsurface over the period of the demonstration, which translates to a stoichiometric consumption of approximately acetate/g RDX. Approximately of groundwater ( RDX) were treated during the course of study at a unit cost of about groundwater treated ($73.70/g RDX destroyed).
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The financial support for this research work was provided by the Department of Defense’s Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) under Project No. ESTCP CU-0110. The writers are grateful to Jeff Breckenridge, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers-Center of Expertise, for his help and assistance in the collection of site data nationwide. Technical assistance of URS Greiner Woodward Clyde personnel—Terry Thonen, Lisa Travelin, Luca DeAngelis, Mark Orr, and Jesse Kaldig in aquifer material and groundwater sampling, and well field installation is highly appreciated. They are thankful to Environmental Chemistry Branch-Omaha, ERDC personnel for their assistance during the field demonstration.
References
Balakrishnan, V. K., Halasz, A., and Hawari, J., (2003). “Alkaline hydrolysis of the cyclic nitramine explosives RDX, HMX and CL20: New insights into degradation pathways obtained by the observation of novel intermediates.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 37, 1838–1843.
Beller, H. R., and Tiemeier, K. (2002). “Use of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry to detect distinctive indicators of in situ RDX transformation in contaminated groundwater.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 2060–2066.
Bonin, P. M., Bejan, D., Schutt, L., Hawari, J., and Bunce, N. J. (2004). “Electrochemical reduction of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine in aqueous solutions.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 1595–1599.
Gilbert, D. M., and Sale, T. C. (2005). “Sequential electrolytic oxidation and reduction of aqueous phase energetic compounds.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 9270–9277.
Halasz, A., Spain, J., Paquet, L., Beaulieu, C., and Hawari, J. (2002). “Insights into the formation and degradation mechanisms of methylenedinitramine during the incubation of RDX with anaerobic sludge.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 633–638.
Hawari, J., et al. (2000). “Characterization of metabolites during biodegradation of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) with municipal anaerobic sludge.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 66, 2652–2657.
Heilmann, H. M., Wiesmann, U., and Stenstrom, M. K. (1996). “Kinetics of the alkaline hydrolysis of high explosives RDX and HMX in aqueous solutions and adsorbed to activated carbon.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 30, 1485–1492.
Hoffsommer, J. C., and Rosen, J. M. (1973). “Hydrolysis of explosives in sea water.” Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 10, 78–79.
Hwang, S., Felt, D. R., Bouwer, E. J., Brooks, M. C., Larson, S. L., and Davis, J. L. (2006). “Remediation of RDX-contaminated water using alkaline hydrolysis.” J. Environ. Eng., 132(2), 256–262.
McCormick, N. G., Cornell, J. H., and Kaplan, A. M. (1981). “Biodegradation of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 42, 817–823.
Mills, A., Seth, A., and Peters, G. (2003). “Alkaline hydrolysis of trinitrotoluene, TNT.” Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 5, 3921–3927.
Morley, M. C., Shammas, S. N., and Speitel, G. E. Jr., (2002). “Biodegradation of RDX and HMX mixtures: Batch screening experiments and sequencing batch reactors.” Environ. Eng. Sci., 19, 237–250.
Rodgers, J. D., and Bunce, N. J. (2001). “Electrochemical treatment of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene and related compounds.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 406–410.
Sheremata, T. W., Halasz, A., Paquet, L., Thiboutot, S., Ampleman, G., and Hawari, J. (2001). “The fate of the cyclic nitramine explosive RDX in natural soil.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 1037–1040.
Sikka, H. C., Banerjee, S., Pack, E. J., and Appleton, H. T. (1980). “Environmental fate of RDX and TNT.” Technical Rep. No. 81-538, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Fort Detrick, Frederick, Md.
Singh, J., Comfort, S. D., Hundal, L. S., and Shea, P. J. (1998). “Long-term RDX sorption and fate in soil.” J. Environ. Qual., 27, 572–577.
Talmage, S. S., Opresko, D. M., Maxwell, C. J., Welsh, C. J. E., Cretella, F. M., Reno, P. H., and Daniel, F. B. (1999). “Nitroaromatic munition compounds: Environmental effects and screening values.” Rev. Environ. Contam Toxicol., 161, 1–156.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). (2004). “Drinking water standards and health advisories.” EPA 822-R-04-005, Office of Water, Washington, D.C.
Wani, A. H., Felt, D. R., and Davis, J. L. (2005). “RDX biodegradation column study: Extent of RDX mineralization and influence of temperature on rate of RDX biotransformation.” Environ. Eng. Sci., 22, 310–323.
Wani, A. H., O’Neal, B. R., Davis, J. L., and Hansen, L. D. (2002). “Treatability study for biologically active zone enhancement (BAZE) for in situ RDX degradation in groundwater.” ERDC/EL TR-02-35, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Miss.
Wani, A. H., O’Neal, B. R., Gilbert, D. M., Gent, D. B., and Davis, J. L. (2006). “Electrolytic transformation of ordnance related compounds (ORCs) in groundwater: Laboratory mass balance studies.” Chemosphere, 62, 689–698.
Yinon, J. (1990). Toxicity and metabolism of explosives, CRC, Boca Raton, Fla.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management
Volume 11 • Issue 2 • April 2007
Pages: 83 - 91
Copyright
© 2007 ASCE.
History
Received: Oct 12, 2006
Accepted: Dec 4, 2006
Published online: Apr 1, 2007
Published in print: Apr 2007
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.