Review of Natural Attenuation of BTEX and MTBE in Groundwater
Publication: Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management
Volume 6, Issue 3
Abstract
Monitored natural attenuation has become accepted as an appropriate “technology” for treating petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated groundwater. Commonly, the monoaromatic compounds benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX) and oxygenated additives, e.g., methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), are the major constituents of regulatory importance. Although a variety of naturally occurring attenuation mechanisms may reduce BTEX and MTBE concentrations, intrinsic biodegradation is the primary destructive mechanism. Attenuation by anaerobic biodegradation is important for BTEX compounds because of the relative abundance of anaerobic electron acceptors as compared with dissolved oxygen. Field studies indicate that MTBE is also biodegradable in shallow aquifers, but at a slower rate relative to BTEX compounds; thus, dispersion and dilution may also be important MTBE attenuation mechanisms. To demonstrate that natural attenuation is occurring, it is critical to document the proposed natural attenuation processes in the field. These processes often cause measurable “footprints.” At a large number of petroleum-hydrocarbon release sites, natural attenuation processes have been observed and documented and found to control the extent of migration of BTEX contaminants. Although the presence of MTBE may compromise the use of natural attenuation at some sites due to the greater mobility and persistence of MTBE compared to BTEX, some data indicate that MTBE plumes do eventually stabilize.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
References
Acton, D. W., and Barker, J. F.(1992). “In situ biodegradation potential of aromatic hydrocarbons in anaerobic groundwaters.” J. Contam. Hydrol., 9(4), 325–352.
Aggarwal, P. K., and Hinchee, R. E.(1991). “Monitoring in situ biodegradation of hydrocarbons by using stable carbon isotopes.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 25(6), 1178–1180.
Ahad, J. M. E., Sherwood Lollar, B., Edwards, E. A., Slater, G. F., and Sleep, B. E.(2000). “Carbon isotope fractionation during anaerobic biodegradation of toluene: implications for intrinsic bioremediation.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 34(5), 892–896.
Amundson, R. G., Chadwick, O. A., Sowers, J. M., and Doner, H. E.(1988). “Relationship between climate and vegetation and the stable carbon isotope chemistry of soils in the eastern Mojave desert, Nevada.” Quat. Res., 29(3), 245–254.
Angley, J. T., Brusseau, M. L., Miller, W. L., and Delfino, J. J.(1992). “Nonequilibrium sorption and aerobic biodegradation of dissolved alkylbenzenes during transport in aquifer material: Column experiments and evaluation of a coupled-process model.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 26(7), 1404–1410.
Anthony, J. W., et al. (1999). “Methodology to evaluate natural attenuation of methyl tertiary-butyl ether.” Natural attenuation of chlorinated solvents, petroleum hydrocarbons, and other organic compounds, B. C. Alleman and A. Leeson, eds., Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 121–133.
ASTM. (1998). “Standard guide for remediation of ground water by natural attenuation at petroleum release sites.” ASTM E-1943-98, West Conshohocken, Pa.
Baedecker, M. J., Cozzarelli, I. M., and Eganhouse, R. P.(1993). “Crude oil in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer. III: Biogeochemical reactions and mass balance modeling in anoxic groundwater.” Appl. Geochem., 8, 569–586.
Barbaro, J. R., Barker, J. F., Lemon, L. A., and Mayfield, C. I.(1992). “Biotransformation of BTEX under anaerobic, denitrifying conditions: Field and laboratory observations.” J. Contam. Hydrol., 11(3–4), 245–272.
Barcelona, M. J., Tomczak, D., Lu, J., and Virkhaus, C. (1993). “Fractionation and identification of organic matter in natural and fossil-fuel contaminated aquifer systems.” Proc., API-NGWA 1993 Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection, and Restoration, Water Well Journal Publishing, Dublin, Ohio, 163–176.
Barker, J. F., Patrick, G. C., and Major, D.(1987). “Natural attenuation of aromatic hydrocarbons in a shallow sand aquifer.” Ground Water Monit. Rev., 7(1), 64–71.
Barlaz, M. A., Hunt, M. J., Kota, S., and Borden, R. C. (1995). “Intrinsic bioremediation of a gasoline plume: Comparison of field and laboratory results.” Bioremediation of hazardous wastes: research, development, and field evaluations, EPA/540/R-95-532, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 17–19.
Bekins, B. A., Warren, E., and Godsy, E. M.(1998). “A comparison of zero-order, first-order, and Monod biotransformation models.” Ground Water, 36(2), 261–268.
Beller, H. R.(2000). “Metabolic indicators for detecting in situ anaerobic alkylbenzene degradation.” Biodegradation, 11(2–3), 125–139.
Beller, H. R., Ding, W.-H., and Reinhard, M.(1995). “Byproducts of anaerobic alkylbenzene metabolism useful as indicators of in situ bioremediation.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 29(11), 2864–2870.
Beller, H. R., and Edwards, E. A.(2000). “Anaerobic toluene activation by benzylsuccinate synthase in a highly enriched methanogenic culture.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 66(12), 5503–5505.
Beller, H. R., Grbić-Galić, D., and Reinhard, M.(1992). “Microbial degradation of toluene under sulfate-reducing conditions and the influence of iron on the process.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58(3), 786–793.
Borden, R. C. (1994). “Natural bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated groundwater.” Handbook of bioremediation, CRC, Boca Raton, Fla., 201–225.
Borden, R. C., Daniel, R. A., LeBrun, L. E., IV, and Davis, C. W.(1997). “Intrinsic biodegradation of MTBE and BTEX in a gasoline-contaminated aquifer.” Water Resour. Res., 33(5), 1105–1115.
Borden, R. C., Gomez, C. A., and Becker, M. T.(1995). “Geochemical indicators of intrinsic bioremediation.” Ground Water, 33(2), 180–189.
Braddock, J. F., and McCarthy, K. A.(1996). “Hydrologic and microbiological factors affecting persistence and migration of petroleum hydrocarbons spilled in a continuous-permafrost region.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 30(8), 2626–2633.
Bradley, P. M., Chapelle, F. H., and Landmeyer, J. E.(2001a). “Effect of redox conditions on MTBE biodegradation in surface water sediments.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35(23), 4643–4647.
Bradley, P. M., Chapelle, F. H., and Landmeyer, J. E.(2001b). “Methyl t-butyl ether mineralization in surface-water sediment microcosms under denitrifying conditions.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 67(4), 1975–1978.
Bradley, P. M., Landmeyer, J. E., and Chapelle, F. H.(1999). “Aerobic mineralization of MTBE and tert-butyl alcohol by stream-bed sediment microorganisms.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 33(11), 1877–1879.
Bradley, P. M., Landmeyer, J. E., and Chapelle, F. H. (2001c). “Widespread potential for microbail MTBE degradation in surface water sediments.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35(4), 658–662.
Burland, S. M., and Edwards, E. A.(1999). “Anaerobic benzene biodegradation linked to nitrate reduction.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 65(2), 529–533.
Buscheck, T. E., and Alcantar, C. M. (1995). “Regression techniques and analytical solutions to demonstrate intrinsic bioremediation.” Intrinsic bioremediation, R. E. Hinchee, J. T. Wilson, and D. C. Downey, eds., Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 109-116.
Caldwell, M. E., and Suflita, J. M.(2000). “Detection of phenol and benzoate as intermediates of anaerobic benzene biodegradation under different terminal electron-accepting conditions.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 34(7), 1216–1220.
Chapelle, F. H.(1999). “Bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated ground water: The perspectives of history and hydrology.” Ground Water, 37(1), 122–132.
Chapelle, F. H., and Bradley, P. M. (1997). “Alteration of aquifer geochemistry by microorganisms.” Manual of environmental microbiology, C. J. Hurst, G. R. Knudsen, M. J. McInerney, L. D. Stetzenbach, and M. V. Walter, eds., ASM, Washington, D. C., 558–564.
Chapelle, F. H., Bradley, P. M., Lovely, D. R., and Vroblesky, D. A.(1996a). “Measuring rates of biodegradation in a contaminated aquifer using field and laboratory methods.” Ground Water, 34(4), 691–698.
Chapelle, F. H., Haack, S. K., Adriaens, P., Henry, M. A., and Bradley, P. M.(1996b). “Comparison of and measurements for delineating redox processes in a contaminated aquifer.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 30(12), 3565–3569.
Chapelle, F. H., Vroblesky, D. A., Woodward, J. C., and Lovley, D. R.(1997). “Practical considerations for measuring hydrogen concentrations in groundwater.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 31(10), 2873–2877.
Chiang, C. Y., Salanitro, J. P., Chai, E. Y., Colthart, J. D., and Klein, C. L.(1989). “Aerobic biodegradation of benzene, toluene, and xylene in a sandy aquifer—data analysis and computer modeling.” Ground Water, 27(6), 823–834.
Cho, J. S., Wilson, J. T., DiGiulio, D. C., Vardy, J. A., and Choi, W.(1997). “Implementation of natural attenuation at a JP-4 jet fuel release after active remediation.” Biodegradation, 8(4), 265–73.
Church, C. D., Isabelle, L. M., Pankow, J. F., Rose, D. L., and Tratnyek, P. G.(1997). “Method for determination of methyl tert-butyl ether and its degradation products in water.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 31(12), 3723–3726.
Church, C. D., Pankow, J. F., and Tratnyek, P. G. (2000). “Assessing the natural attenuation potential of methyl tert-butyl ether.” Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds (Poster Abstracts), Monterey, Calif., Battelle.
Coates, J. D., et al. (2001). “Anaerobic benzene oxidation coupled to nitrate reduction in pure culture by two strains of Dechloromonas.” Nature (London), 411(6841), 1039–1043.
Conrad, M. E., Templeton, A. S., Daley, P. F., and Alvarez-Cohen, L.(1999). “Isotopic evidence for biological controls on migration of petroleum hydrocarbons.” Org. Geochem., 30(8A), 843–859.
Cozzarelli, I. M., Baedecker, M. J., Eganhouse, R. P., and Goerlitz, D. F.(1994). “The geochemical evolution of low-molecular-weight organic acids derived from the degradation of petroleum contaminants in groundwater.” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 58(2), 863–877.
Cozzarelli, I. M., Eganhouse, R. P., and Baedecker, M. J.(1990). “Transformation of monoaromatic hydrocarbons to organic acids in anoxic groundwater environment.” Environ. Geol. Water Sci., 16(2), 135–141.
Davis, G. B., et al. (1999). “The variability and intrinsic remediation of a BTEX plume in anaerobic sulphate-rich groundwater.” J. Contam. Hydrol., 36(3/4), 265–290.
Deeb, R. A., Hu, H.-Y., Hanson, J. R., Scow, K. M., and Alvarez-Cohen, L.(2001). “Substrate interactions in BTEX and MTBE mixtures by an MTBE-degrading isolate.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35(2), 312–317.
Deeb, R. A., Scow, K. M., and Alvarez-Cohen, L.(2000). “Aerobic MTBE biodegradation: An examination of past studies, current challenges, and future research directions.” Biodegradation, 11(2–3), 171–186.
Deines, P. (1980). “The isotopic composition of reduced organic carbon.” Handbook of environmental isotope geochemistry, P. Fritz and J. C. H. Fontes, eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 329–406.
Edwards, E. A., and Grbić-Galić, D.(1994). “Anaerobic degradation of toluene and o-xylene by a methanogenic consortium.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 60(1), 313–322.
Edwards, E. A., Wills, L. E., Reinhard, M., and Grbić-Galić, D.(1992). “Anaerobic degradation of toluene and xylene by aquifer microorganisms under sulfate-reducing conditions.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58(3), 794–800.
Ellis, L. B. M., and Wackett, L. P. (2001). The University of Minnesota biocatalysis/biodegradation database, 〈http://www.labmed.umn.edu/umbbd/index.html〉 (August, 2001).
Finneran, K. T., and Lovley, D. R.(2001). “Anaerobic degradation of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and tert-butyl alcohol (TBA).” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35(9), 1785–1790.
Garnier, P., Auria, R., Magaña, M., and Revah, S. (1999a). “Cometabolic biodegradation of methyl t-butyl ether by a soil consortium.” In situ bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon and other organic compounds, B. Alleman and A. Leeson, eds., Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 31–35.
Garnier, P. M., Auria, R., Augur, C., and Revah, S.(1999b). “Cometabolic biodegradation of methyl t-butyl ether by Pseudomonas aeruginosa grown on pentane.” Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 51(4), 498–503.
Gieg, L. M., et al. (1999). “Intrinsic bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons in a gas condensate-contaminated aquifer.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 33(15), 2550–2560.
Hadley, P. W., and Armstrong, R.(1991). “‘Where’s the benzene?’—Examining California ground-water quality surveys.” Ground Water, 29(1), 35–40.
Hanson, J. R., Ackerman, C. E., and Scow, K. M.(1999). “Biodegradation of methyl tert-butyl ether by a bacterial pure culture.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 65(11), 4788–92.
Happel, A. M., et al. (1996). “Analysis of dissolved benzene plumes and methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) plumes in ground water at leaking underground fuel tank (LUFT) sites.” UCRL-JC-125633, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, Calif.
Heider, J., and Fuchs, G.(1997). “Anaerobic metabolism of aromatic compounds.” Eur. J. Biochem., 243(3), 577–596.
Heider, J., Spormann, A. M., Beller, H. R., and Widdel, F.(1998). “Anaerobic bacterial metabolism of hydrocarbons.” FEMS Microbiol. Rev., 22(5), 459–473.
Hunkeler, D., Butler, B. J., Aravena, R., and Barker, J. F.(2001). “Monitoring biodegradation of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) using compound-specific carbon isotope analysis.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35(4), 676–681.
Hutchins, S. R.(1991). “Optimizing BTEX biodegradation under denitrifying conditions.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 10, 1437–1448.
Hutchins, S. R., Sewell, G. W., Kovacs, D. A., and Smith, G. A.(1991). “Biodegradation of aromatic hydrocarbons by aquifer microorganisms under denitrifying conditions.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 25, 68–76.
Hyman, M., Kwon, P., Williamson, K., and O’Reilly, K. (1998). “Cometabolism of MTBE by alkane-utilizing microorganisms.” Natural attenuation, chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds, G. Wickramanayake and R. Hinchee, eds., Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 321–326.
Jarvis, W. F., Sage, G. W., Basu, D. K., Gray, D. A., Meylan, W., and Crosbie, E. K. (1989). “Large production and priority pollutants.” Handbook of environmental fate and exposure data for organic chemicals, P. H. Howard, ed., Lewis, Chelsea, Mich.
Johnston, J. J., Borden, R. C., and Barlaz, M. A.(1996). “Anaerobic biodegradation of alkylbenzenes and trichloroethylene in aquifer sediment down gradient of a sanitary landfill.” J. Contam. Hydrol., 23(4), 263–283.
Kampbell, D. H., Wiedemeier, T. H., and Hansen, J. E.(1996). “Intrinsic bioremediation of fuel contamination in ground water at a field site.” J. Haz. Mat., 49(2–3), 197–204.
Kazumi, J., Caldwell, M. E., Suflita, J. M., Lovley, D. R., and Young, L. Y.(1997). “Anaerobic degradation of benzene in diverse anoxic environments.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 31(3), 813–818.
Kemblowski, M. W., Salanitro, J. P., Deeley, G. M., and Stanely, C. C. (1987). “Fate and transport of residual hydrocarbon in groundwater—a case study.” Proc., NWWA/API Conf. on Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection and Restoration, Water Well Journal Publishing, Dublin, Ohio, 207–231.
Koenigsberg, S., Sandefur, C., Mahaffey, W., Deshusses, M., and Fortin, N. (1999). “Peroxygen-mediated bioremediation of MTBE.” In situ bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon and other organic compounds, B. C. Alleman and A. Leeson, eds., Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 13–18.
Kuhn, E. P., Colberg, P. J., Schnoor, J. L., Wanner, O., Zehnder, A. J. B., and Schwarzenbach, R. P.(1985). “Microbial transformations of substituted benzenes during infiltration of river water to groundwater: Laboratory column studies.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 19, 961–968.
Kuhn, E. P., Zeyer, J., Eicher, P., and Schwarzenbach, R. P.(1988). “Anaerobic degradation of alkylated benzenes in denitrifying laboratory aquifer columns.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 54(2), 490–496.
Landmeyer, J., Chapelle, F., Bradley, P., Pankow, J., Church, C., and Tratnyek, P.(1998). “Fate of MTBE relative to benzene in a gasoline-contaminated aquifer (1993–98).” Ground Water Monit. Rem., 18(4), 93–102.
Landmeyer, J. E., Chapelle, F. H., Herlong, H. H., and Bradley, P. M.(2001). “Methyl tert-butyl ether biodegradation by indigenous aquifer microorganisms under natural and artificial oxic conditions.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 35(6), 1118–1126.
Landmeyer, J. E., Vroblesky, D. A., and Chapelle, F. H.(1996). “Stable carbon isotope evidence of biodegradation zonation in a shallow jet-fuel contaminated aquifer.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 30(4), 1120–1128.
Larsen, T., Kjeldsen, P., and Christensen, T. H.(1992). “Sorption of hydrophobic hydrocarbons on three aquifer materials in a flow through system.” Chemosphere, 24(4), 439–451.
Lovley, D. R.(1997). “Potential for anaerobic bioremediation of BTEX in petroleum-contaminated aquifers.” J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 18(2–3), 75–81.
Lovley, D. R., Baedecker, M. J., Lonergan, D. J., Cozzarelli, I. M., Phillips, E. J. P., and Siegel, D. I.(1989). “Oxidation of aromatic contaminants coupled to microbial iron reduction.” Nature (London), 339(6222), 297–299.
Lovley, D. R., Coates, J. D., Woodward, J. C., and Phillips, E. J. P.(1995). “Benzene oxidation coupled to sulfate reduction.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 61(3), 953–958.
Lovley, D. R., and Goodwin, S.(1988). “Hydrogen concentrations as an indicator of the predominant terminal electron-accepting reactions in aquatic sediments.” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 52, 2993–3003.
Lovley, D. R., and Lonergan, D. J.(1990). “Anaerobic oxidation of toluene, phenol, and p-cresol by the dissimilatory iron-reducing organism, GS-15.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 56(6), 1858–1864.
Lyngkilde, J., and Christensen, T. H.(1992). “Fate of organic contaminants in the redox zones of a landfill leachate pollution plume (Vejen, Denmark).” J. Contam. Hydrol., 10(4), 291–307.
Mace, R. E., Fisher, R. S., Welch, D. M., and Parra, S. P. (1997). “Extent, mass, and duration of hydrocarbon plumes from leaking petroleum storage tank sites in Texas.” Geological Circular 97-1, Bureau of Economic Geology, Austin, Tex.
MacIntyre, W. G., Boggs, M., Antworth, C. P., and Stauffer, T. B.(1993). “Degradation kinetics of aromatic organic solutes introduced into a heterogeneous aquifer.” Water Resour. Res., 29(12), 4045–4051.
Mackay, D., Shiu, W. Y., and Ma, K. C. (1992). “Monoaromatic hydrocarbons, chlorobenzenes, and PCBs.” Illustrated handbook of physical-chemical properties and environmental fate for organic chemicals, Lewis, Chelsea, Mich.
Mackay, D., Shiu, W. Y., and Ma, K. C. (1993). “Volatile organic chemicals.” Illustrated handbook of physical-chemical properties and environmental fate for organic chemicals, Lewis, Chelsea, Mich.
Madsen, E. L.(1991). “Determining in situ biodegradation, facts and challenges.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 25(10), 1663–1673.
Madsen, E. L., Sinclair, J. L., and Ghiorse, W. C.(1991). “In situ biodegradation: Microbiological patterns in a contaminated aquifer.” Science, 252, 830–833.
McAllister, P. M., and Chiang, C. Y.(1994). “A practical approach to evaluating natural attenuation of contaminants in ground water.” Ground Water Monit. Rem., 14(2), 161–173.
McCarty, P. L. (1972). “Energetics of organic matter degradation.” Water pollution microbiology, R. Mitchell, ed., Wiley, New York, 91–118.
Michalenko, E. M., et al. (1993). “Solvents 2.” Handbook of environmental fate and exposure data for organic chemicals, P. H. Howard, ed., Lewis, Chelsea, Mich.
Mo, K., Lora, C. O., Wanken, A. E., Javanmardian, M., Yang, X., and Kulpa, C. F.(1997). “Biodegradation of methyl t-butyl ether by pure bacterial cultures.” Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 47(1), 69–72.
Mormile, M. R., Liu, S., and Suflita, J. M.(1994). “Anaerobic biodegradation of gasoline oxygenates: Extrapolation of information to multiple sites and redox conditions.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 28(9), 1727–1732.
Morrison, R. T., and Boyd, R. N. (1973). Organic chemistry, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
National Research Council (NRC). (1993). In situ bioremediation: When does it work? National Academy, Washington, D.C.
National Research Council (NRC). (2000). Natural attenuation for groundwater remediation, National Academy, Washington, D.C.
Newell, C. J., and Connor, J. A. (1998). Characteristics of dissolved petroleum hydrocarbon plumes: Version 1.1, API Soil/Groundwater Task Force, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
Norris, R. D. (1994). “In-situ bioremediation of soils and groundwater contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons.” Handbook of bioremediation, R. D. Norris, et al., eds., Lewis, Boca Raton, Fla., 17–37.
Odencrantz, J. E.(1998). “Implications of MTBE for intrinsic remediation of underground fuel tank sites.” Remediation, 9(3), 7–16.
Odermatt, J. R.(1994). “Natural chromatographic separation of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX compounds) in a gasoline contaminated ground water aquifer.” Org. Geochem., 21(10-11), 1141–1150.
Park, K., and Cowan, B. M. (1997). “Biodegradation of gasoline oxygenates.” In situ and on-site bioremediation, Vol. 1, B. C. Alleman and A. Leeson, eds., Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 17.
Phelps, C. D., Kazumi, J., and Young, L. Y.(1996). “Anaerobic degradation of benzene in BTX mixtures dependent on sulfate reduction.” FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 145(3), 433–437.
Phelps, C. D., and Young, L. Y.(1999). “Anaerobic biodegradation of BTEX and gasoline in various aquatic sediments.” Biodegradation, 10(1), 15–25.
Piveteau, P., Fayolle, F., Vandecasteele, J.-P., and Monot, F.(2001). “Biodegradation of tert-butyl alcohol and related xenobiotics by a methylotrophic bacterial isolate.” Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 55(3), 369–373.
Poulsen, M., Lemon, L., and Barker, J. F.(1992). “Dissolution of monoaromatic hydrocarbons into groundwater from gasoline-oxygenate mixtures.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 26(12), 2483–2489.
Ptacek, C. J., Cherry, J. A., and Gillham, R. W. (1987). “Mobility of dissolved petroleum-derived hydrocarbon in sand aquifers.” Oil in freshwater: Chemistry, biology, countermeasure technology, J. H. Vandermeulen and S. E. Hrudey, eds., Pergamon, New York, 195–214.
Reid, J. B., Reisinger, H. J., II, Bartholomae, P. G., Gray, J. C., and Hullman, A. S. (1999). “A comparative assessment of the long-term behavior of and benzene plumes in Florida, USA.” Natural attenuation of chlorinated solvents, petroleum hydrocarbons, and other organic compounds, B. C. Alleman and A. Leeson, eds., Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 97–102.
Reinhard, M., Goodman, N. L., and Barker, J. F.(1984). “Occurrence and distribution of organic chemicals in two landfill leachate plumes.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 18(12), 953–961.
Rice, D. W., et al. (1995a). “Recommendations to improve the cleanup process for California’s leaking underground fuel tanks (LUFTs).” UCRL-AR-121762, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, Calif.
Rice, D. W., et al. (1995b). “California leaking underground fuel tank (LUFT) historical case analyses.” UCRL-AR-122207, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, Calif.
Rittmann, B. E., Seagren, E. A., Wrenn, B. A., Valocchi, A. J., Ray, C., and Raskin, L. (1994). In situ bioremediation, Noyes, Park Ridge, N.J.
Rivett, M. O.(1995). “Soil-gas signatures from volatile chlorinated solvents: Borden field experiments.” Ground Water, 33(1), 84–98.
Robbins, G. A., Wang, S., and Stuart, J. D.(1993). “Using the static headspace method to determine Henry’s Law constants.” Anal. Chem., 65(21), 3113–3118.
Rogers, R. D., McFarlane, J. C., and Cross, A. J.(1980). “Adsorption and desorption of benzene in two soils and montmorillonite clay.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 14(4), 457–460.
Rugge, K., Bjerg, P. L., and Christensen, T. H.(1995). “Distribution of organic compounds from municipal solid waste in the groundwater downgradient of a landfill (Grindsted, Denmark).” Environ. Sci. Technol., 29(5), 1395–1400.
Sage, G. W., Jarvis, W. F., and Gray, D. A. (1990). “Solvents.” Handbook of environmental fate and exposure data for organic chemicals, P. H. Howard, ed., Lewis, Chelsea, Mich.
Salanitro, J. P.(1993). “The role of bioattenuation in the management of aromatic hydrocarbon plumes in aquifers.” Ground Water Monit. Rem., 13(4), 150–161.
Salanitro, J. P., Diaz, L. A., Williams, M. P., and Wisniewski, H. L.(1994). “Isolation of a bacterial culture that degrades methyl t-butyl ether.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1994(7), 2593–2596.
Schirmer, M., and Barker, J. F.(1998). “A study of long-term MTBE attenuation in the Borden Aquifer, Ontario, Canada.” Ground Water Monit. Rem., 18(2), 113–122.
Schirmer, M., Butler, B. J., Barker, J. F., Church, C. D., and Schirmer, K.(1999). “Evaluation of biodegradation and dispersion as natural attenuation processes of MTBE and benzene at the Borden field site.” Phys. Chem. Earth (B), 24(6), 557–560.
Seagren, E. A., and Becker, J. G. (1999). “Organic acids as a bioremediation monitoring tool.” Natural attenuation of chlorinated solvents, petroleum hydrocarbons, and other organic compounds, B. C. Alleman and A. Leeson, eds., Battelle Press, Columbus, Ohio, 343–348.
Seagren, E. A., Smets, B. F., Hollander, D. J., Stahl, D. A., and Rittmann, B. E. (1998). “Total alkalinity as a bioremediation monitoring tool.” Natural attenuation: Chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds, G. B. Wickramanayake and R. E. Hinchee, Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 117–122.
Sherwood Lollar, B., et al. (1999). “Contrasting carbon isotope fractionation during biodegradation of trichloroethylene and toluene: Implications for intrinsic bioremediation.” Org. Geochem., 30(8A), 813–820.
Somsamak, P., Cowan, R. M., and Häggblom, M. M.(2001). “Anaerobic biotransformation of fuel oxygenates under sulfate-reducing conditions.” FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 37(3), 259–264.
Spormann, A. M., and Widdel, F.(2000). “Metabolism of alkylbenzenes, alkanes, and other hydrocarbons in anaerobic bacteria.” Biodegradation, 11(2-3), 85–105.
Squillace, P. J., Pankow, J. F., Korte, N. E., and Zogorski, J. S. (1998). “Environmental behavior and fate of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE).” Fact Sheet FS-203-96 (Revised 2/98), U.S. Geological Survey.
Squillace, P. J., Pankow, J. F., Korte, N. E., and Zogorski, J. S.(1997). “Review of the environmental behavior and fate of methyl tert-butyl ether.” Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 16(9), 1836–1844.
Steffan, R. J., McClay, K., Vainberg, S., Condee, C. W., and Zhang, D.(1997). “Biodegradation of the gasoline oxygenates methyl tert-butyl ether, ethyl tert-butyl ether, and tert-amyl methyl ether by propane-oxidizing bacteria.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 63(11), 4216–4222.
Stehmeier, L. G., Francis, M. M., Jack, T. R., Diegor, E., Winsor, L., and Abrajano, T. A. Jr., (1999). “Field and in vitro evidence for in situ bioremediation using compound-specific ratio monitoring.” Org. Geochem., 30(8A), 821–833.
Stuart, B. J., Bowlen, G. F., and Kosson, D. S.(1991). “Competitive sorption of benzene, toluene and the xylenes onto soil.” Environ. Prog., 10(2), 104–109.
Stumm, W., and Morgan, J. J. (1981). Aquatic chemistry, Wiley, New York.
Thierrin, J., et al. (1993). “Natural degradation rates of BTEX compounds and naphthalene in a sulphate reducing groundwater environment.” Hydrol. Sci. J., 38(4), 309–323.
Van de Velde, K. D., Marley, M. C., Studer, J., and Wagner, D. M. (1995). “Stable carbon isotope analysis to verify bioremediation and bioattenuation.” Monitoring and verification of bioremediation, R. E. Hinchee, G. S. Douglas, and S. K. Ong, eds., Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 241–257.
Vroblesky, D. A., Bradley, P. M., and Chapelle, F. H.(1997). “Lack of correlation between organic acid concentrations and predominant electron-accepting processes in a contaminated aquifer.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 31(5), 1416–1418.
Vroblesky, D. A., and Chapelle, F. H.(1994). “Temporal and spatial changes of terminal electron-accepting processes in a petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated aquifer and the significance for contaminant biodegradation.” Water Resour. Res., 30(5), 1561–1570.
Weiner, J. M., and Lovley, D. R.(1998a). “Anaerobic benzene degradation in petroleum-contaminated aquifer sediments after inoculation with a benzene-oxidizing enrichment.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 64(2), 775–778.
Weiner, J. M., and Lovley, D. R.(1998b). “Rapid benzene degradation in methanogenic sediments from a petroleum-contaminated aquifer.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 64(5), 1937–1939.
Whiticar, M. J., Faber, E., and Schoell, M.(1986). “Biogenic methane formation in marine and freshwater environments: reduction vs. acetate fermentation—isotope evidence.” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 50(5), 693–709.
Wiedemeier, T., Wilson, J. T., Kampbell, D. H., Miller, R. N., and Hansen, J. E. (1995). Technical protocol for implementing intrinsic remediation with long-term monitoring for natural attenuation of fuel contamination dissolved in groundwater, Vol. 1, U.S. Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, San Antonio, Tex.
Wiedemeier, T. H., Rifai, H. S., Newell, C. J., and Wilson, J. T. (1999). Natural attenuation of fuels and chlorinated solvents in the subsurface, Wiley, New York.
Wiedemeier, T. H., Swanson, M. A., Wilson, J. T., Kampbell, D. H., Miller, R. N., and Hansen, J. E.(1996). “Approximation of biodegradation rate constants for monoaromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX) in ground water.” Ground Water Monit. Rem., 16(3), 186–194.
Willey, L. M., Kharaka, Y. K., Presser, T. S., Rapp, J. B., and Barnes, I.(1975). “Short chain aliphatic acid anions in oil field waters and their contribution to the measured alkalinity.” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 39, 1707–1711.
Wilson, B. H., Smith, G. B., and Rees, J. F.(1986). “Biotransformations of selected alkylbenzenes and halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons in methanogenic aquifer material: A microcosm study.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 20(10), 997–1002.
Wilson, B. H., Wilson, J. T., Kampbell, D. H., Bledsoe, B. E., and Armstrong, J. M.(1990). “Biotransformation of monoaromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons at an aviation gasoline spill site.” Geomicrobiol. J., 8(3-4), 225–250.
Wilson, J. T., Cho, J. S., Wilson, B. H., and Vardy, J. A. (2000). “Natural attenuation of MTBE in the subsurface under methanogenic conditions.” EPA/600/R-00/006, Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati.
Yeh, C., and Novak, J.(1994). “Anaerobic biodegradation of gasoline oxygenates in soils.” Water Environ. Res., 66(5), 744–752.
Yeh, C. K., and Novak, J. T.(1995). “The effect of hydrogen peroxide on the degradation of methyl and ethyl tert-butyl ether in soils.” Water Environ. Res., 67(5), 828–834.
Zeyer, J., Kuhn, E. P., and Schwarzenbach, R. P. (1986). “Rapid microbial mineralization of toluene and 1,3-dimethylbenzene in the absence of molecular oxyger.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52(4), 944–947.
Zytner, R. G.(1994). “Sorption of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes to various media.” J. Haz. Mat., 38(1), 113–126.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management
Volume 6 • Issue 3 • July 2002
Pages: 156 - 172
Copyright
Copyright © 2002 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 1, 2002
Accepted: Mar 1, 2002
Published online: Jun 14, 2002
Published in print: Jul 2002
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.