Practical Aspects of In-Situ Electrokinetic Extraction
Publication: Journal of Environmental Engineering
Volume 125, Issue 1
Abstract
Electrokinetic extraction is an emerging technology that can be used to remove contaminants from heterogeneous fine-grained soils in situ. Contaminants in the subsurface are removed by the application of a direct-current electric field across the contaminated soil. The primary contaminant transport and removal mechanisms are electroosmotic advection and ionic migration. However, there are many complex physicochemical reactions occurring simultaneously during the process that may enhance or retard the cleanup process. Nonetheless, the viability of the technology has been established by results obtained from many bench-scale and large-scale laboratory and pilot-scale field experiments performed on various soils. This paper will review the fundamental concepts of the technology and discuss some important practical aspects and design criteria of the technology for field implementations. An example on cost analysis of the technology is also presented to demonstrate the use of various equations presented in the paper and to illustrate the cost-effectiveness of the technology.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
References
1.
Acar, Y. B., and Alshawabkeh, A. ( 1993). “Principles of electrokinetic remediation.” Envir. Sci. and Technol., 27(13), 2638–2647.
2.
Acar, Y. B., and Alshawabkeh, A. (1996). “Electrokinetic remediation. 1: Pilot-scale tests with lead spiked kaolinite.”J. Geotech. and Geoenvir. Engrg., ASCE, 122(3), 173–185.
3.
Acar, Y. B., Alshawabkeh, A., and Gale, R. J. ( 1993). “Fundamentals of extracting species from soils by electrokinetics.” Waste Mgmt., 13(2), 141–151.
4.
Acar, Y. B., Hamed, J. T., Alshawabkeh, A., and Gale, R. J. ( 1994). “Cd(II) removal from saturated kaolinite by application of electrical current.” Géotechnique, London, 44(3), 239–254.
5.
Acar, Y. B., Li, H., and Gale, R. J. (1992). “Phenol removal from kaolinite by electrokinetics.”J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 118(11), 1837–1852.
6.
Alshawabkeh, A. N., and Acar, Y. B. ( 1992). “Removal of contaminants from soils by electrokinetics: A theoretical treatise.” J. Envir. Sci. and Health, A27(7), 1835–1861.
7.
Alshawabkeh, A. N., and Acar, Y. B. (1996). “Electrokinetic remediation. II: Theoretical model.”J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 122(3), 186–196.
8.
Bruell, C. J., Segall, B. A., and Walsh, M. T. (1992). “Electroosmotic removal of gasoline hydrocarbons and TCE from clay.”J. Envir. Engrg., ASCE, 118(1), 68–83.
9.
Cox, C. D., Shoesmith, M. A., and Ghosh, M. M. ( 1996). “Electrokinetic remediation of mercury-contaminated soils using iodine/iodide lixivant.” Envir. Sci. and Technol., 30(6), 1933–1938.
10.
Datla, S. ( 1994). “A unified theory on electro-kinetic extraction of contaminants,” MS thesis, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, Tex.
11.
Datla, S., and Yeung, A. T. ( 1994). “Subsurface migration of contaminants under the coupled influences of hydraulic, electrical and chemical gradients.” Proc., 8th Int. Conf. of the Int. Assn. for Comp. Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Vol. 2, Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1043–1048.
12.
Dean J. A., ed. ( 1992). Lange's handbook of chemistry, 14th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
13.
Denisov G., Hicks, R. E., and Probstein, R. F. ( 1996). “On the kinetics of charged contaminant removal from soils using electric fields.” J. Colloid and Interface Sci., 178(1), 309–323.
14.
Electrokinetics (EK) Inc. ( 1995). “Assessment of selected enhancement schemes in electrokinetic remediation.” SBIR-Phase I Rep. submitted to the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers—Waterways Experiment Station (USAE-WES), Baton Route, La., 159.
15.
Eykholt, G. R. ( 1992). “Driving and complicating features of the electrokinetic treatment of contaminated soils,” PhD thesis, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Texas at Austin, Austin, Tex.
16.
Eykholt, G. R., and Daniel, D. E. (1994). “Impact of system chemistry on electroosmosis in contaminated soil.”J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 120(5), 797–815.
17.
Freeze, R. A., and Cherry, J. A. ( 1979). Groundwater . Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
18.
Gopinath, S. ( 1994). “A laboratory study of electro-kinetic remediation of fine-grained soil contaminated with organic compounds,” MS thesis, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, Tex.
19.
Gray, D. H., and Mitchell, J. K. (1967). “Fundamental aspects of electro-osmosis in soils.”J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., ASCE, 93(6), 209–236.
20.
Hamed, J., Acar, Y. B., and Gale, R. J. (1991). “Pb(II) removal from kaolinite using electrokinetics.”J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 117(2), 241–271.
21.
Hicks, R. E., and Tondorf, S. ( 1994). “Electrorestoration of metal contaminated soils.” Envir. Sci. and Tech., 28(12), 2203–2210.
22.
Hsu, C. ( 1997). “Electrokinetic remediation of heavy metal contaminated soils,” PhD dissertation, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, Tex.
23.
Hunter, R. J. ( 1981). Zeta potential in colloid science . Academic, New York.
24.
Jin, M., and Sharma, M. M. ( 1991). “A model for electrochemical and electrokinetic coupling in inhomogeneous porous media.” J. Colloid and Interface Sci., 142(1), 61–73.
25.
Kuo, C. C., and Papadopoulos, K. D. ( 1996). “Electrokinetic movement of settled spherical particles in fine capillaries.” Envir. Sci. and Technol., 30(4), 1176–1179.
26.
Lageman, R. ( 1993). “Electroreclamation: Applications in the Netherlands.” Envir. Sci. and Technol., 27(13), 2648–2650.
27.
Lageman, R., Pool, W., and Seffinga, G. ( 1989). “Electro-reclamation in theory and practice.”Rep. No. EPA/540/2-89/056, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 57–76.
28.
Lockhart, N. C. ( 1983a). “Electro-osmotic dewatering of clays: I. Influence of voltage.” Colloids Surf., 6(3), 229–238.
29.
Lockhart, N. C. ( 1983b). “Electro-osmotic dewatering of clays: II. Influence of salt, acid, and flocculants.” Colloids Surf., 6(3), 239–251.
30.
Lockhart, N. C. ( 1983c). “Electro-osmotic dewatering of clays: III. Influence of clay type, exchangeable cations, and electrode materials.” Colloids Surf., 6(3), 253–269.
31.
Menon, R. M. ( 1996). “Numerical modeling and experimental study on electro-kinetic extraction,” PhD dissertation, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, Tex.
32.
Menon, R. M., Hsu, C., and Yeung, A. T. ( 1996). “Experimental and modeling studies on electrokinetic extraction of lead from Georgia kaolinite.” Proc., 2nd Int. Congr. on Envir. Geotechnics, Vol. 2, Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1039–1044.
33.
Mitchell, J. K. ( 1991). “Conduction phenomena: from theory to geotechnical practice.” Géotechnique, London, 41(3), 299–340.
34.
Mitchell, J. K. ( 1993). Fundamentals of soil behavior, 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York.
35.
Pamukcu, S., and Wittle, J. K. ( 1992). “Electrokinetic removal of selected heavy metals from soil.” Envir. Progress, AIChE, 11(4), 241–250.
36.
Puppala, S., Alshawabkeh, A. N., Acar, Y. B., Gale, R. J., and Bricka, R. M. ( 1997). “Enhanced electrokinetic remediation of high sorption capacity soils.” J. Haz. Mat., 55(1–3), 203–220.
37.
Reddy, K. R., Parupudi, U. S., Devulapalli S. N., and Xu, C. Y. ( 1997). “Effect of soil composition on the removal of chromium by electrokinetics.” J. Haz. Mat., 55(1–3), 135–158.
38.
Renaud, P. C., and Probstein, R. F. ( 1987). “Electroosmotic control of hazardous wastes.” PCH PhysicoChemical Hydrodynamics, 9(1/2), 345–360.
39.
Rødsand, T., Acar, Y. B., and Breedveld, G. ( 1995). “Electrokinetic extraction of lead from spiked Norwegian marine clay.” Characterization, containment, remediation, and performance in environmental geotechnics, Geotech. Spec. Publ. No. 46, ASCE, New York, 2, 1518–1534.
40.
Runnells, D. D., and Wahli, C. ( 1993). “In situ electromigration as a method for removing sulfate, metals, and other contaminants from ground water.” Ground Water Monitoring & Remediation, 13(1), 121–129.
41.
Schultz, D. S. ( 1997). “Electroosmosis technology for soil remediation: Laboratory results, field trial, and economic modeling.” J. Haz. Mat., 55(1–3), 81–92.
42.
Segall, B. A., and Bruell, C. J. (1992). “Electroosmotic contaminant removal processes.”J. Envir. Engrg., ASCE, 118(1), 84–100.
43.
Shapiro, A. P., and Probstein, R. F. ( 1993). “Removal of contaminants from saturated clay by electroosmosis.” Envir. Sci. and Technol., 27(2), 283–291.
44.
Shapiro, A. P., Renaud, P. C., and Probstein, R. F. ( 1989a). “Preliminary studies on the removal of chemical species from saturated porous media by electroosmosis.” PCH PhysicoChemical Hydrodynamics, 11(5/6), 785–802.
45.
Shapiro, A. P., Renaud, P. C., and Probstein, R. F. ( 1989b). “In-situ extraction of contaminants from hazardous waste site by electroosmosis.” Solid/liquid separation: Waste management and productivity enhancement, H. S. Muralidhara, ed., Battelle, Columbus, Ohio, 346–353.
46.
West, L. J., and Stewart, D. I. ( 1995). “Effect of zeta potential on soil electrokinesis.” Characterization, containment, remediation, and performance in environmental geotechnics, Geotech. Spec. Publ. No. 46, ASCE, New York, 2, 1535–1549.
47.
Wong, J. S., Hicks, R. E., and Probstein, R. F. ( 1997). “EDTA-enhanced electroremediation of metal contaminated soils.” J. Haz. Mat., 55(1–3), 61–80.
48.
Yeung, A. T. (1992). “Diffuse double-layer equations in SI units.”J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 118(2), 2000–2005.
49.
Yeung, A. T. ( 1994). “Electrokinetic flow processes in porous media and their applications.” Advances in porous media, M. Y. Corapcioglu, ed., Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2, 309–395.
50.
Yeung, A. T., and Datla, S. ( 1995). “Fundamental formulation of electrokinetic extraction of contaminants from soil.” Can. Geotech. J., Ottawa, 32(4), 569–583.
51.
Yeung, A. T., Hsu, C., and Menon, R. M. (1996). “EDTA-enhanced electrokinetic extraction of lead.”J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 122(8), 666–673.
52.
Yeung, A. T., Hsu, C., and Menon, R. M. ( 1997). “Physicochemical soil-contaminant interactions during electrokinetic extraction.” J. Haz. Mat., 55(1–3), 221–237.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
History
Received: Aug 4, 1997
Published online: Jan 1, 1999
Published in print: Jan 1999
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.