Offshore Wind Turbine Monopile Foundation Systems in Multilayered Soil Strata under Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic Loads: State-of-the-Art Review
Publication: Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction
Volume 28, Issue 3
Abstract
Due to the large demand to produce clean and renewable energy, offshore wind farms are extensively being used to help with economic development. Offshore Wind Turbine (OWT) structures are usually supported by various types of foundations and its selection depends on several factors such as water depth, economic costs, construction methodologies, seabed bathymetry, soil characteristics, and load characteristics. The present State-of-the-Art review focuses on OWT-monopile foundation systems embedded in multi-layered soil strata subjected to aerodynamic and hydrodynamic loading conditions. The purpose of this study is to carry out a comprehensive review on the performance of OWT-monopile foundation structures to support the design and drafting choices and thereby provide an understanding to reduce the costs. Two specific subject areas are addressed in this paper: (1) Factors affecting the performance of OWT-Monopile Foundation Systems; and (2) Experimental modeling and numerical analyses of OWT-Monopile Foundation Systems. The immediate challenge to the design of OWTs is to analyze the dynamic response of the foundation structure when exposed to both aerodynamic and hydrodynamic loads acting simultaneously. The limitations of the existing guidelines point to the need for improved design methods to obtain an economical design of OWT-monopile foundations. The use of Finite Element (FE) models is effective in studying the functioning of OWT-monopile structures. The present study suggests the development of further numerical models and modifications to the existing ones to properly assess soil-monopile interactions. This study also suggests further investigations on the design and analysis of OWT-monopile foundations considering the effect of (i) aerodynamic and hydrodynamic loading conditions with soil-monopile interactions, and (ii) multi-layered seabed characteristics.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data generated or analyzed during the study are included in the published paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the support received from the Florida Atlantic University for providing the first two authors with Graduate Teaching Assistantships and The Gangals Nonprofit Foundation, Inc. for providing International Post Graduate Engineering Scholarship to successfully finish this study.
References
ABAQUS. 2014. Abaqus analysis user’s manual: ABAQUS 6.14-4. Johnston, RI: SIMULIA.
ABB. 2012. “Wind power plants. Technical application paper no. 13.” Accessed October 10, 2012. http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot209.nsf/veritydisplay/92faf0c1913f5651c1257937002f88e8/$file/1sdc007112g0201.pdf.
Achmus, M., and K. Abdel-Rahman. 2012. “Design of piles for offshore wind energy foundations with respect to horizontal loading.” In Proc., Twenty-Second Int. Offshore and Polar Engineering Conf. Richardson, TX: OnePetro.
Alderlieste, E. A. 2011. “Experimental modelling of lateral loads on large diameter mono-pile foundations in sand.” M.S. thesis, Dept. of Geotechnology, Delft Univ. of Technology.
Aleem, M., S. Bhattacharya, L. Cui, S. Amani, A. R. Salem, and S. Jalbi. 2022. “Load utilisation (LU) ratio of monopiles supporting offshore wind turbines: Formulation and examples from European Wind Farms.” Ocean Eng. 248 (Jul): 110798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.110798.
API (American Petroleum Institute). 1991. Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore platform. API (RP-2A). Washington, DC: API.
API (American Petroleum Institute). 2000. “Recommended practice for planning, design and constructing fixed offshore platform.” In API recommended practice 2A-WSD (RP2A-WSD). 21st ed. Dallas, TX: API.
API (American Petroleum Institute). 2007. API RPA2: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore platforms–working stress design. 22nd ed. Washington, DC: API.
API (American Petroleum Institute). 2010. API RPA2: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore platforms–working stress design. 22nd ed. Washington, DC: API.
API (American Petroleum Institute). 2014. “Planning, designing, and constructing fixed offshore platforms? Working stress design.” Accessed November 1, 2014. https://www.api.org/∼/media/files/publications/whats%20new/2a-wsd_e22%20pa.pdf.
Arany, L., S. Bhattacharya, J. Macdonald, and S. J. Hogan. 2017. “Design of monopiles for offshore wind turbines in 10 steps.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 92 (Jan): 126–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2016.09.024.
Arshad, M., and B. C. O’Kelly. 2013. “Offshore wind-turbine structures: A review.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Energy 166 (4): 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1680/ener.12.00019.
Arshad, M., and B. C. O’Kelly. 2014. “Development of a rig to study model pile behaviour under repeating lateral loads.” Int. J. Phys. Modell. Geotech. 14 (3): 54–66. https://doi.org/10.1680/ijpmg.13.00015.
Arshad, M., and B. C. O’Kelly. 2016a. “Analysis and design of monopile foundations for offshore wind-turbine structures.” Mar. Georesour. Geotechnol. 34 (6): 503–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2015.1033070.
Arshad, M., and B. C. O’Kelly. 2016b. “Model studies on monopile behavior under long-term repeated lateral loading.” Int. J. Geomech. 17 (1): 04016040. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000679.
Arshad, M., and B. C. O’Kelly. 2016c. “Piled-cruciform attachment to monopile head reduces deflection.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Geotech. Eng. 169 (4): 321–335. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeen.15.00001.
Bhushan, B., and W. E. Jahsman. 1978. “Measurement of dynamic material behavior under nearly uniaxial strain conditions.” Int. J. Solids Struct. 14 (9): 739–753. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7683(78)90032-X.
Bouzid, D. A., S. Bhattacharya, and L. Otsmane. 2018. “Assessment of natural frequency of installed offshore wind turbines using nonlinear finite element model considering soil-monopile interaction.” J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 10 (2): 333–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2017.11.010.
Burd, H. J., et al. 2020. “PISA design model for monopiles for offshore wind turbines: application to a marine sand.” Géotechnique 70 (11): 1048–1066. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.18.P.277.
Byrne, B. W., and G. T. Houlsby. 2003. “Foundations for offshore wind turbines.” Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 361 (1813): 2909–2930. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2003.1286.
Carswell, W. 2015. “Soil-structure modeling and design considerations for offshore wind turbine monopile foundations.” Doctoral dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Massachusetts Amherst.
Chen, J., and M. H. Kim. 2022. “Review of recent offshore wind turbine research and optimization methodologies in their design.” J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 10 (1): 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10010028.
De Groot, M. B., M. D. Bolton, P. Foray, P. Meijers, A. C. Palmer, R. Sandven, A. Sawicki, and T. C. Teh. 2006. “Physics of liquefaction phenomena around marine structures.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 132 (4): 227–243. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-950X(2006)132:4(227).
DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung). 2005. Baugrund Sicherheitsnachweise im Erd und Gundbau. DIN 1054: 2005. Berlin: DIN.
DNV (Det Norske Veritas). 2011. Design of offshore wind turbine structures. DNV–OS–J101. Oslo, Norway: DNV.
DNV (Det Norske Veritas). 2014. Design of offshore wind turbine structures. DNV–OS–J101. Oslo, Norway: DNV.
EWEA (European Wind Energy Association). 2007. “Delivering offshore wind power in Europe.” Accessed October 10, 2012. http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/images/publications/offshorereport/ewea-offshore_report.pdf.
Fard, M. M., A. Erken, B. Erkmen, and A. Ansal. 2021. “Analysis of offshore wind turbine by considering soil-pile-structure interaction: Effects of foundation and sea-wave properties.” J. Earthquake Eng. 26 (14): 7222–7244. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2021.1961936.
Feyzollahzadeh, M., M. J. Mahmoodi, S. M. Yadavar-Nikravesh, and J. Jamali. 2016. “Wind load response of offshore wind turbine towers with fixed monopile platform.” J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 158 (Jun): 122–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2016.09.007.
Fu, D., Y. Zhang, K. K. Aamodt, and Y. Yan. 2020. “A multi-spring model for monopile analysis in soft clays.” Mar. Struct. 72 (Jul): 102768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2020.102768.
Gielen, D. 2012. Wind power, renewable energy technologies: Cost analysis series. Bonn, Germany: Int Renew Energy Agency (IRENA).
GL (Germanischer Lloyd). 2005. “Rules and guidelines, IV industrial services, 2 guideline for the certification of offshore wind turbines, 6 structures.” Accessed September 17, 2012. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/mb/Offshore%20Wind/Guideline.pdf.
Gupta, B. K. 2018. Soil-structure interaction analysis of monopile foundations supporting offshore wind turbines. Waterloo, ON: Univ. of Waterloo.
Gupta, B. K., and D. Basu. 2015a. “Analysis of rigid monopiles in multilayered soil.” In Proc., 68th Canadian Geotechnical Conf. Québec, QC, Canada: Quebec City Convention Centre.
Gupta, B. K., and D. Basu. 2015b. “Analysis of offshore wind turbine rigid monopile foundation.” In From fundamentals to applications in geotechnics, 822–829. Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press.
Gupta, B. K., and D. Basu. 2016a. “Analysis of laterally loaded rigid monopiles and poles in multilayered linearly varying soil.” Comput. Geotech. 72 (Jun): 114–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2015.11.008.
Gupta, B. K., and D. Basu. 2016b. “Design charts for laterally-loaded rigid monopiles in multilayered elastic soil.” In Geo-Chicago 2016, 393–406. Reston, VA: ASCE. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784480137.038.
Gupta, B. K., and D. Basu. 2016c. “Response of laterally loaded rigid monopiles and poles in multi-layered elastic soil.” Can. Geotech. J. 53 (8): 1281–1292. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0520.
Gupta, B. K., and D. Basu. 2017a. “Analysis investigating the applicability of Timoshenko, Euler-Bernoulli, and rigid beam theories in modeling laterally loaded monopiles.” In Proc., 19th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, ICSMGE 2017. Beijing: Univ. and Research Institutions in China.
Gupta, B. K., and D. Basu. 2017b. “Dynamic analysis of rigid monopiles in multilayered viscoelastic soil.” In GeoOttawa, 70th Canadian Geotechnical Conf. Saskatoon, SK, Canada: Canadian Geotechnical Society.
Gupta, B. K., and D. Basu. 2018. “Applicability of Timoshenko, Euler–Bernoulli and rigid beam theories in analysis of laterally loaded monopiles and piles.” Géotechnique 68 (9): 772–785. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.16.P.244.
Gupta, B. K., and D. Basu. 2020. “Offshore wind turbine monopile foundations: Design perspectives.” Ocean Eng. 213 (Jun): 107514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2020.107514.
Gupta, B. K., T. Deb, and B. Singh. 2013. Behaviour of large diameter piles as foundation system for offshore wind turbine in sands. Berlin: ResearchGate.
Hearn, E. 2009. “Finite element analysis of an offshore wind turbine generator monopile foundation.” Doctoral dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering, TUFTS Univ.
Hearn, E. N., and L. Edgers. 2010. “Finite element analysis of an offshore wind turbine monopile.” In GeoFlorida 2010: Advances in Analysis, Modeling & Design, 1857–1865. Reston, VA: ASCE. https://doi.org/10.1061/41095(365)188.
Ho, A., A. Mbistrova, and G. Corbetta. 2016. The European offshore wind industry-key trends and statistics 2015. Brussels, Belgium: European Wind Energy Association.
Hu, Q., F. Han, M. Prezzi, R. Salgado, and M. Zhao. 2022. “Finite-element analysis of the lateral load response of Monopiles in layered sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 148 (4): 04022001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002745.
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission). 2005. Wind turbines–Part 1: Design requirements. 3rd ed. Geneva: IEC.
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission). 2009. Wind turbines–Part 3: Design requirements for fixed offshore wind turbines. 1st ed. Geneva: IEC.
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission). 2019. Wind energy generation systems–Part 3-1: Design requirements for fixed offshore wind turbines. Geneva: IEC.
Ishihara, T., and L. Wang. 2019. “A study of modal damping for offshore wind turbines considering soil properties and foundation types.” Wind Energy 22 (12): 1760–1778. https://doi.org/10.1002/we.2401.
Ismael, N. F. 1990. “Behavior of laterally loaded bored piles in cemented sands.” J. Geotech. Eng. 116 (11): 1678–1699. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1990)116:11(1678).
Iwicki, P., and J. Przewłócki. 2020. Short review and 3-D FEM analysis of basic types of foundation for offshore wind turbines. Gdańsk, Poland: Polish Maritime Research.
Jacomet, A., A. Khosravifardshirazi, I. Sahafnejad-Mohammadi, M. Dibaj, A. A. Javadi, and M. Akrami. 2021. “Analysing the influential parameters on the monopile foundation of an offshore wind turbine.” Computation 9 (6): 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/computation9060071.
Jie, L., Z. Zili, and C. Jianbing. 2012. “Experimental study on vibration control of offshore wind turbines using a ball vibration absorber.” Energy Power Eng. 4 (3): 5. https://doi.org/10.4236/epe.2012.43021.
Jonkman, J., and M. J. Buhl. 2005. FAST user’s guide. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Jose, N. M., and A. Mathai. 2015. A study on lateral deformation of monopile foundation of offshore wind turbine. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2016.05.038.
Jung, S., S. R. Kim, and A. Patil. 2015. “Effect of monopile foundation modeling on the structural response of a 5-MW offshore wind turbine tower.” Ocean Eng. 109 (Jul): 479–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2015.09.033.
Jydsk Centraltrykkeri. 2002. Guidelines for design of wind turbines. 2nd ed. Denmark: Jydsk Centraltrykkeri.
Kaynia, A. M. 2019. “Seismic considerations in design of offshore wind turbines.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 124 (Aug): 399–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.04.038.
Kellezi, L., and P. B. Hansen. 2003. “Static and dynamic analysis of an offshore mono-pile windmill foundation.” In Proc., BGA Int. Conf. on Foundations: Innovations, Observations, Design and Practice: Proc., Int. Conf. Organised by British Geotechnical Association and held in Dundee, Scotland on 2–5th September 2003, 401–410. London: Thomas Telford Publishing.
Lee, S., H. Kim, and S. Lee. 2010. “Analysis of aerodynamic characteristics on a counter-rotating wind turbine.” Curr. Appl Phys. 10 (2): S339–S342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cap.2009.11.073.
Lesny, K., S. G. Paikowsky, and A. Gurbuz. 2007. “Scale effects in lateral load response of large diameter monopiles.” In Contemporary issues in deep foundations, 1–10. Reston, VA: ASCE. https://doi.org/10.1061/40902(221)40.
Lesny, K., and J. Wiemann. 2006. “Finite-element-modelling of large diameter monopiles for offshore wind energy converters.” In GeoCongress 2006: Geotechnical Engineering in the Information Technology Age, 1–6. Reston, VA: ASCE. https://doi.org/10.1061/40803(187)212.
Little, R. L., and J. L. Briaud. 1988. Full scale cyclic lateral load tests on six single piles in sand. Geotechnical division. College Station, TX: Texas A&M Univ.
Long, J., and G. Vanneste. 1994. “Effects of cyclic lateral loads on piles in sand.” ASCE J. Geotech. Eng. 120 (1): 225–244. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:1(225).
Malhotra, S. 2011. “Selection, design and construction of offshore wind turbine foundations.” In Wind turbines. London: IntechOpen.
Manual, S. 2008. Plaxis 2D-Version 8. Martinez, CA: International Information Center for Geotechnical Engineers.
Matlock, H. 1970. “Correlation for design of laterally loaded piles in soft clay.” In Proc., Offshore Technology Conf., 577–594. Richardson, TX: OnePetro.
Mishra, A. S., S. W. Thakare, and A. I. Dhatrak. 2021. “Performance of hybrid monopile foundation for offshore structures.” Int. J. Emerging Technol. Innovative Res. 8 (9): c604–c612. https://doi.one/10.1729/Journal.28121.
Morison, J. R., M. P. O’Brien, J. W. Johnson, and S. A. Schaaf. 1950. “The force exerted by surface waves on piles.” Pet. Trans. 2 (5): 149–157. https://doi.org/10.2118/950149-G.
Page, A. M., K. S. Skau, H. P. Jostad, and G. R. Eiksund. 2017. “A new foundation model for integrated analyses of monopile-based offshore wind turbines.” Energy Procedia 137 (Jan): 100–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.10.337.
Papagiannis, M. 2018. Wind turbine foundations in clay: Technical and economic considerations for proposals for wind turbine foundations. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala Univ.
Patel, S., C. H. Solanki, K. R. Reddy, and S. K. Shukla. 2019. “Lecture notes in civil Engineering.” In Proc., Indian Geotechnical Conf., IGC-2019. Berlin: Springer.
Patra, S. K., and S. Haldar. 2021. “Seismic response of monopile supported offshore wind turbine in liquefiable soil.” In Vol. 31 of Structures, 248–265. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2021.01.095.
Prowell, I., M. Veletzos, A. Elgamal, and J. Restrepo. 2008. “Shake table test of a 65 kW wind turbine and computational simulation.” In Proc., 14th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 12–17. Novosibirsk Oblast: Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics.
Raktate, T. 2020. “Design of Monopile foundation for offshore wind turbine.” In Vol. 170 of E3S Web of Conf., 01024. Beijing: EDP Sciences.
Reese, L. C., W. R. Cox, and F. D. Koop. 1974. “Analysis of laterally loaded piles in sand.” In Proc., Offshore Technology Conf. Houston: OnePetro.
Reese, L. C., W. R. Cox, and F. D. Koop. 1975. “Field testing and analysis of laterally loaded piles in stiff clay.” In Proc., 7th Annual Offshore Technology Conf., 671–690. Houston: OnePetro.
Reese, L. C., and R. C. Welch. 1975. “Lateral loading of deep foundations in stiff clay.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 101 (7): 633–649. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000177.
Reese, R. A. 1997. “Properties of aged asphalt binder related to asphalt concrete fatigue life.” J. Assoc. Asphalt Paving Technol. 66 (Aug): 604–632.
Sahin, I. 2004. “Calculation of three-dimensional flow field for moving pressure distributions.” In Vol. 37459 of Proc., Int. Conf. on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, 481–487. New York: ASME. https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2004-51127.
Schaffer, W. A. 2017. Monopile foundation offshore wind turbine simulation and retrofitting. Pierre, SD: South Dakota State Univ.
Schafhirt, S., A. Page, G. R. Eiksund, and M. Muskulus. 2016. “Influence of soil parameters on the fatigue lifetime of offshore wind turbines with monopile support structure.” Energy Procedia 94 (Jun): 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.09.194.
Shaikh Taiyyab, J., and K. G. Patwari. 2020. “Offshore wind turbine Monopile response to the dynamic and earthquake loading in Indian conditions.” Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. 7 (8): 5008.
Sørensen, J. D. 2009. “Framework for risk-based planning of operation and maintenance for offshore wind turbines.” Wind Energy: Int. J. Progress Appl. Wind Power Convers. Technol. 12 (5): 493–506. https://doi.org/10.1002/we.344.
Sullivan, D. 1977. “Infinitesimal computations in topology.” Publ. Mathématiques de l’IHÉS 47 (1): 269–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02684341.
Tirandazian, M., and G. Nouri. 2021. “Effect of turbine weight on the seismic response of a wind turbine-monopile system located in liquefied multilayer soil.” In Shock and vibration. London: Hindawi.
Tiwari, A. K. 2016. “Analysis of Monopile foundation for offshore wind turbine.” Doctoral dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela.
Tong, W. 2010. Wind power generation and wind turbine design. Ashurst, Southampton: WIT Press.
Wang, S., T. J. Larsen, and H. Bredmose. 2021. “Ultimate load analysis of a 10 MW offshore monopile wind turbine incorporating fully nonlinear irregular wave kinematics.” Mar. Struct. 76 (Aug): 102922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2020.102922.
Wu, X., et al. 2019. “Foundations of offshore wind turbines: A review.” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 104 (Apr): 379–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.012.
Yoon, G. L., S. B. Kim, J. H. Yi, and J. H. Lee. 2015. “Reliability analysis of laterally loaded pile for an offshore wind turbine support structure.” In Proc., 2015 World Congress on Advances in Civil, Environmental, and Materials Research. Incheon, Republic of Korea: International Association of Structural Engineering and Mechanics.
Zachariah, J. P., and J. P. Sahoo. 2021. “Response of laterally loaded monopile using three-dimensional finite element analysis.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., Indian Geotechnical Conf. 2019: IGC-2019, 383–394. Singapore: Springer.
Zhang, J., Z. Q. Wang, L. Zhang, K. Sun, and J. Hao. 2010. “Static and dynamic analysis of monopile foundation for offshore wind farm.” In Proc., 12th Int. Offshore and Polar Engineering Conf. Richardson, TX: OnePetro.
Zhang, Y., and K. H. Andersen. 2019. “Soil reaction curves for monopiles in clay.” Mar. Struct. 65 (Feb): 94–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2018.12.009.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction
Volume 28 • Issue 3 • August 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Published online: Mar 31, 2023
Published in print: Aug 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Aug 31, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.