Seismic Performance Assessment of Wood Light-Frame Shearwalls Using the Performance-Based Unified Procedure
Publication: Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 150, Issue 11
Abstract
This study examines the seismic force modification factors related to overstrength and ductility of wood light-frame shearwalls. Several archetypes were developed to meet different design criteria. Nonlinear static procedure, nonlinear time-history analysis, and nonlinear incremental dynamic analysis were performed. The numerical analyses were based on 2D representations of the designed archetypes. The nonlinear static analysis results revealed an overstrength factor of 2.2, which is greater than the current value of 1.7 for wood light-frame shearwalls. The findings also indicated that existing design requirements for hold-downs and the overcapacity requirement for the first and second stories may not always ensure satisfactory performance. The archetype detailed screening step proved valuable as a preliminary assessment prior to the incremental dynamic analysis in identifying critical archetypes. The results of the performance margin ratios indicated that the archetypes marginally met the life safety performance level. Overall, this study suggests a need for potential adjustments in design standards and considerations for a more comprehensive evaluation of the seismic performance of wood light-frame shearwalls. This study also found that adhering to design requirements related to certain irregularities decreased the probability of collapse in those archetypes.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or codes that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Abrahamson, N. A., and W. J. Silva. 1997. “Empirical response spectral attenuation relations for shallow crustal earthquakes.” Seismol. Res. Lett. 68 (1): 94–127. https://doi.org/10.1785/gssrl.68.1.94.
ASCE. 2017. Seismic evaluation and retrofit of existing buildings. Reston, VA: ASCE.
ASCE. 2022. Minimum design loads and associated criteria for buildings and other structures. ASCE/SEI 7-22. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Asiz, A., Y. H. Chui, G. Doudak, C. Ni, and M. Mohammad. 2011. “Contribution of plasterboard finishes to structural performance of multi-storey light wood frame buildings.” Procedia Eng. 14 (Jan): 1572–1581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.07.198.
ATC (Applied Technology Council). 2009. Quantification of building seismic performance factors. Washington, DC: US Dept. of Homeland Security, FEMA.
Atkinson, G. M., and D. M. Boore. 2003. “Empirical ground-motion relations for subduction-zone earthquakes and their application to Cascadia and other regions.” Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 93 (4): 1703–1729. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120020156.
AWC (American Wood Council). 2018. National design specification for wood construction. ANSI/AWC NDS-2018. Leesburg, VA: AWC.
Bagheri, M. M., and G. Doudak. 2020. “Structural characteristics of light-frame wood shear walls with various construction detailing.” Eng. Struct. 205 (Feb): 110093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.110093.
Bahmani, P., and J. W. van de Lindt. 2016. “Experimental and numerical assessment of woodframe sheathing layer combinations for use in strength-based and performance-based design.” J. Struct. Eng. 142 (4): E4014001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)st.1943-541x.0001134.
Baker, J. W. 2015. “Efficient analytical fragility function fitting using dynamic structural analysis.” Earthquake Spectra 31 (1): 579–599. https://doi.org/10.1193/021113EQS025M.
Baker, J. W., and C. Allin Cornell. 2005. “A vector-valued ground motion intensity measure consisting of spectral acceleration and epsilon.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 34 (10): 1193–1217. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.474.
Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes. 2003. National building code of Canada: 1995. Ottawa: Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes, National Research Council of Canada.
Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes. 2005. National building code of Canada. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada.
Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes. 2022. National building code of Canada 2020. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada.
Ceccotti, A., and E. Karacabeyli. 2002. “Validation of seismic design parameters for wood-frame shearwall systems.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 29 (3): 484–498. https://doi.org/10.1139/l02-026.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2005. Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance—Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings. EN 1998-1. Brussels, Belgium: European Committee for Standardization.
Chen, Z., Y.-H. Chui, G. Doudak, and A. Nott. 2016. “Contribution of type-x gypsum wall board to the racking performance of light-frame wood shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 142 (5): 04016008. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)st.1943-541x.0001468.
Christovasilis, I. P., A. Filiatrault, M. C. Constantinou, and A. Wanitkorkul. 2009a. “Incremental dynamic analysis of woodframe buildings.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 38 (4): 477–496. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.864.
Christovasilis, I. P., A. Filiatrault, and A. Wanitkorkul. 2009b. Seismic testing of a full-scale two-story light-frame wood building: NEESWood benchmark test. Buffalo, NY: Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research.
CSA (Canadian Standard Association). 2019. Engineering design in wood. CSA Standard O86-19. Rexdale, ON, Canada: CSA.
Dean, P. K., and H. W. Shenton. 2005. “Experimental investigation of the effect of vertical load on the capacity of wood shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 131 (7): 1104–1113. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2005)131:7(1104).
Dolan, J. D., and B. Madsen. 1992a. “Monotonic and cyclic nail connection tests.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 19 (1): 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1139/l92-010.
Dolan, J. D., and B. Madsen. 1992b. “Monotonie and cyclic tests of timber shear walls.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 19 (3): 415–422. https://doi.org/10.1139/l92-050.
Doudak, G., A. Bérubé, E. Morshedi, R. Fathi-Fazl, F. Fazileh, and Z. Cai. 2023. “Nonlinear modelling parameters for performance-based seismic evaluation of existing wood light-frame buildings in Canada.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 51 (5): 561–576. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjce-2023-0289.
Doudak, G., and E. Morshedi. 2023. Seismic performance factors of light-frame shearwall buildings. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada.
Durham, J., H. G. L. Prion, F. Lam, and M. He. 1999. “Earthquake resistance of shearwalls with oversize sheathing panels.” In Proc., 8th Canadian Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 161–166. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Canadian Association for Earthquake Engineering and Seismology.
Durham, J. P. 1998. Seismic response of wood shearwalls with oversized oriented strand board panels. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Univ. of British Columbia.
Estrella, X., S. Malek, J. L. Almazán, P. Guindos, and H. Santa María. 2021. “Experimental study of the effects of continuous rod hold-down anchorages on the cyclic response of wood frame shear walls.” Eng. Struct. 230 (Mar): 111641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111641.
Fazileh, F., R. Fathi-Fazl, A. Dolati, C. E. Ventura, M. Saatcioglu, D. Lau, T. Y. Yang, V. Sadeghian, and J. Erochko. 2023a. “Methodology for determination of seismic force modification factors in Canada: Performance-based unified procedure.” Earthquake Spectra 39 (1): 218–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/87552930221144325.
Fazileh, F., R. Fathi-Fazl, and X. Huang. 2023b. Performance-based unified procedure for determination of seismic force modification factors Rd, Ro in NBC. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, Construction Research Centre.
Gatto, K., and C.-M. Uang. 2003. “Effects of loading protocol on the cyclic response of woodframe shearwalls.” J. Struct. Eng. 129 (10): 1384–1393. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2003)129:10(1384).
Ghafory-Ashtiany, M., M. Mousavi, and A. Azarbakht. 2011. “Strong ground motion record selection for the reliable prediction of the mean seismic collapse capacity of a structure group.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 40 (6): 691–708. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.1055.
Guíñez, F., H. Santa María, and J. Luis Almazán. 2019. “Monotonic and cyclic behaviour of wood frame shear walls for mid-height timber buildings.” Eng. Struct. 189 (Jun): 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.03.043.
Guíñez Yáñez, F. D. 2018. “Seismic response of wood frame shear walls with sturdy end studs and strong hold-down anchorages and design implications.” Master’s thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile.
He, M., F. Lam, and H. G. L. Prion. 1998. “Influence of cyclic test protocols on performance of wood-based shear walls.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 25 (3): 539–550. https://doi.org/10.1139/l97-114.
Ibarra, L. F., and H. Krawinkler. 2005. Global collapse of frame structures under seismic excitations. Berkeley, CA: Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center.
Jayamon, J. R., P. Line, and F. A. Charney. 2019. “Sensitivity of wood-frame shear wall collapse performance to variations in hysteretic model parameters.” J. Struct. Eng. 145 (1): 04018236. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002210.
Johnston, A. R., P. K. Dean, and H. W. Shenton. 2006. “Effects of vertical load and hold-down anchors on the cyclic response of wood framed shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 132 (9): 1426–1434. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2006)132:9(1426).
Lafontaine, A., Z. Chen, G. Doudak, and Y. Hei Chui. 2017. “Lateral behavior of light wood-frame shear walls with gypsum wall board.” J. Struct. Eng. 143 (8): 04017069. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001798.
Lafontaine, A., and G. Doudak. 2017. “Stiffness model for gypsum wallboard-to-wood joints.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 44 (5): 338–347. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjce-2016-0334.
Lebeda, D. J., R. Gupta, D. V. Rosowsky, and J. Daniel Dolan. 2005. “Effect of hold-down misplacement on strength and stiffness of wood shear walls.” Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr. 10 (2): 79–87. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0680(2005)10:2(79).
Line, P., N. Waltz, and T. Skaggs. 2008. “Seismic equivalence parameters for engineered wood frame wood structural panel shear walls.” Wood Des. Focus 18 (2): 13–19.
Liu, J. Y., and L. A. Soltis. 1984. “Lateral resistance of nailed joints—A test method.” For. Prod. J. 34 (1): 55–60.
Malhotra, S. K., and B. Thomas. 1985. “Effect of interface gap on load-slip characteristics of timber joints fabricated with multiple nails.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 12 (1): 104–113. https://doi.org/10.1139/l85-011.
McGuire, R. K. 1995. “Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis and design earthquakes: Closing the loop.” Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 85 (5): 1275–1284. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0850051275.
McKenna, F., M. H. Scott, and G. L. Fenves. 2010. “Nonlinear finite-element analysis software architecture using object composition.” J. Comput. Civ. Eng. 24 (1): 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CP.1943-5487.0000002.
Mitchell, D., R. Tremblay, E. Karacabeyli, P. Paultre, M. Saatcioglu, and D. L. Anderson. 2003. “Seismic force modification factors for the proposed 2005 edition of the national building code of Canada.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 30 (2): 308–327. https://doi.org/10.1139/l02-111.
National Research Council of Canada. 1992. National building code of Canada: 1990. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada.
Newmark, N. M., and W. J. Hall. 1982. Earthquake spectra and design. Engineering monographs on earthquake criteria. Berkeley, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute.
Ni, C., and E. Karacabeyli. 2000. “Effect of overturning restraint on performance of shear walls.” In Vol. 31 of Proc., 6th World Conf. of Timber Engineering, 1–9. Glasgow, Scotland: Curran Associates.
NIST. 2017. Recommended modeling parameters and acceptance criteria for nonlinear analysis in support of seismic evaluation, retrofit, and design. Gaithersburg, MD: NIST.
Orellana, P., H. Santa María, J. L. Almazán, and X. Estrella. 2021. “Cyclic behavior of wood-frame shear walls with vertical load and bending moment for mid-rise timber buildings.” Eng. Struct. 240 (Aug): 112298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.112298.
Pei, S., and J. W. van de Lindt. 2009. “Coupled shear-bending formulation for seismic analysis of stacked wood shear wall systems.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 38 (14): 1631–1647. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.926.
Pei, S., J. W. van de Lindt, N. Wehbe, and H. Liu. 2013. “Experimental study of collapse limits for wood frame shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 139 (9): 1489–1497. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000730.
Pellicane, P. J., and J. Bodig. 1984. “Comparison of nailed joint test methods.” J. Test. Eval. 12 (5): 261–267. https://doi.org/10.1520/JTE10725J.
Porter, K., R. Kennedy, and R. Bachman. 2007. “Creating fragility functions for performance-based earthquake engineering.” Earthquake Spectra 23 (2): 471–489. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.2720892.
Rainer, J. H., and E. Karacabeyli. 2000. “Performance of wood frame construction in earthquakes.” In Vol. 30 of Proc., 12th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 1–8. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering.
Sadeghi Marzaleh, A., S. Nerbano, A. Sebastiani Croce, and R. Steiger. 2018. “OSB sheathed light-frame timber shear walls with strong anchorage subjected to vertical load, bending moment, and monotonic lateral load.” Eng. Struct. 173 (Oct): 787–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.05.044.
Salenikovich, A. J. 2000. The racking performance of light-frame shear walls. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ.
Salenikovich, A. J., and J. Daniel Dolan. 2003a. “The racking performance of shear walls with various aspect ratios. Part 2. Cyclic tests of fully anchored walls.” For. Prod. J. 53 (11–12): 37–45.
Salenikovich, A. J., and J. Daniel Dolan. 2003b. “The racking performance of shear walls with various aspect ratios. Part I. Monotonic tests of fully anchored walls.” For. Prod. J. 53 (10): 65–73.
Shinozuka, M., M. Q. Feng, J. Lee, and T. Naganuma. 2000. “Statistical analysis of fragility curves.” J. Eng. Mech. 126 (12): 1224–1231. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(2000)126:12(1224).
Simpson Strong-tie. 2022. “Strong-Rod systems: Seismic and wind anchor tiedown system guide.” Accessed April 5, 2024. https://www.strongtie.com/.
Straub, D., and A. Der Kiureghian. 2008. “Improved seismic fragility modeling from empirical data.” Struct. Saf. 30 (4): 320–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strusafe.2007.05.004.
Uang, C.-M. 1991a. “Comparison of seismic force reduction factors used in USA and Japan.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 20 (4): 389–397. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.4290200407.
Uang, C.-M. 1991b. “Establishing R (or Rw) and Cd factors for building seismic provisions.” J. Struct. Eng. 117 (1): 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1991)117:1(19).
Uang, C.-M., and K. Gatto. 2003. “Effects of finish materials and dynamic loading on the cyclic response of woodframe shearwalls.” J. Struct. Eng. 129 (10): 1394–1402. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2003)129:10(1394).
Uang, C.-M., and A. Maarouf. 1994. “Deflection amplification factor for seismic design provisions.” J. Struct. Eng. 120 (8): 2423–2436. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1994)120:8(2423).
Vamvatsikos, D., and C. Allin Cornell. 2002. “Incremental dynamic analysis.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 31 (3): 491–514. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.141.
van de Lindt, J. W., S. Pei, H. Liu, and A. Filiatrault. 2010. “Three-dimensional seismic response of a full-scale light-frame wood building: Numerical study.” J. Struct. Eng. 136 (1): 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000086.
van de Lindt, J. W., S. Pei, W. Pang, and S. M. H. Shirazi. 2012. “Collapse testing and analysis of a light-frame wood garage wall.” J. Struct. Eng. 138 (4): 492–501. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000472.
Van de Lindt, J. W., et al. 2014. “Seismic risk reduction for soft-story woodframe buildings: Test results and retrofit recommendations from the NEES-soft project.” In Proc., WCTE 2014—World Conf. on Timber Engineering. New York: Curran Associates.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 150 • Issue 11 • November 2024
Copyright
© 2024 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Feb 2, 2024
Accepted: Jun 20, 2024
Published online: Sep 14, 2024
Published in print: Nov 1, 2024
Discussion open until: Feb 14, 2025
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.