Flexible Pavement Instrumentation: A State-of-the-Art Review
Publication: Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part B: Pavements
Volume 149, Issue 2
Abstract
Flexible pavements are subjected to loading stresses and resulting strains dependent on the existing environmental conditions. Distresses in the form of rutting and cracking occur in pavements due to progressive damage accumulation caused by repeated traffic-induced stresses/strains. For the accurate design of pavements, a knowledge of in-place strain is necessary to calibrate the laboratory obtained models. In the form of traffic loading and response sensors and weather instruments, pavement instrumentation plays a critical role in bridging the gap between theory and practice in pavement design. The commonly used instruments consist of weigh in motion (WIM) sensors, multidepth deflectometer (MDD), asphalt strain gauges, soil compression gauges, and earth pressure cells. Weather instruments consist of anemometers, thermocouples, and pyranometer. This paper presents a review of state-of-the-art instruments, basic principles, and working mechanisms with examples. The needs for successful instrumentation programs, including the provision of rugged sensors and protections, triggering of sensors with the WIM, and collation of data for successful analysis, are discussed. Concepts of the Wheatstone bridge, pressure cells, and linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) for the various sensors are presented. The principles and working mechanisms of anemometer, pyranometer, and thermocouples are discussed for weather sensors.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The authors are very appreciative of Bridge Diagnostics, Inc. (BDI) for their help in preparing this paper.
References
AASHTO. 1993. Guide for design of pavement structures. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
AASHTO. 2008. Mechanistic-empirical design guide. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
Abu El-Maaty Behiry, A. E. 2012. “Fatigue and rutting lives in Flexible Pavement.” Ain Shams Eng. J. 3 (4): 367–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2012.04.008.
Al-Abbasi, A., and A. Shalaby. 2018. “Non-destructive testing for optimizing concrete pavement rehabilitation.” In Proc., Innovation and Technology: Evolving Transportation - 2018 Conf. and Exhibition of the Transportation Association of Canada. Ottawa: Transportation Association of Canada.
Ali, N. A., and N. P. Khosla. 1987. Determination of layer moduli using a falling weight deflectometer. Transportation research record, No.1117, 1–10. Washington, DC: TRB, National Research Council.
Al-Qadi, I. L., A. Loulizi, M. Elseifi, and S. Lahouar. 2004. “The virginia smart road: The impact of pavement instrumentation on understanding pavement performance.” J. Assoc. Asphalt Paving Technol. 73 (3): 427–465.
Ang, W. C., P. Kropelnicki, J. Tsai, K. Leong, and C. Tan. 2014. “Design, simulation and characterization of wheatstone bridge structured metal thin film uncooled microbolometer.” Procedia Eng. 94 (Jan): 6–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2013.10.013.
ASTM. 2006. Standard test method for prediction of asphalt-bound pavement layer temperatures. ASTM D7228-06. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2008. Standard for general pavement deflection measurements. ASTM D4695-03. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2016. Standard practice for field use of pyranometers, pyrheliometers and UV radiometers. ASTM G183-15. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2017a. Standard guide for evaluating uncertainty in calibration and field measurements of broadband irradiance with pyranometers and pyrheliometers. ASTM G213-17. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2017b. Standard specification for highway weigh-in-motion (WIM) systems with user requirements and test methods. ASTM E1318-09. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2020a. Standard guide for calculating in situ equivalent elastic moduli of pavement materials using layered elastic theory. ASTM D5858-96. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2020b. Standard guide for using the surface ground penetrating radar method for subsurface investigation. ASTM D6432-19. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2020c. Standard test method for deflections with a falling-weight-type impulse load device. ASTM D4694-09. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Austroads Ltd. 2019. Guide to pavement technology part 2: Pavement structural design. AGPT02-12. Sydney, Australia: Austroad Ltd.
Bao, Y., and G. Chen. 2015. “Strain distribution and crack detection in thin unbonded concrete pavement overlays with fully distributed fiber optic sensors.” Opt. Eng. 55 (1): 011008. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.OE.55.1.011008.
Barksdale, R. G. 1971. “Compressive stress pulse times in flexible pavements for use in dynamic testing.” Highway Res. Rec. 345 (4): 32–44.
Barriera, M., S. Pouget, B. Lebental, and R. J. Van. 2020. “In situ pavement monitoring: A review.” Infrastructures 5 (2): 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures5020018.
Bay, J. A., and K. H. Stokoe II. 1998. Development of a rolling dynamic deflectometer for continuous deflection testing of pavements. Austin, TX: Univ. of Texas.
BDI (Bridge Diagnostics, Inc.). 2022. “Soil compression gage.” Accessed May 22, 2022. https://bditest.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/208791-Rev-C-Datasheet-Soil-Compression-Sensor-SCS.pdf.
BESTECH. 2022. “Sensors & instrumentation.” Accessed May 22, 2022. https://www.bestech.com.au/products/sensors-instrumentation/.
Blanc, J., P. Hornych, J. Kerzreho, C. Louis-Marie, V. Cam, N. Hautière, C. Roche, and H. Van Damme. 2012. “Remote monitoring of an experimental motorway section—An enabling technology of the 5th generation road.” Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol. 5: 289–-294.
Bolivar Lobo Carneiro, F. 1966. “Benkelman beam-auxiliary instrument of the maintenance engineer.” Highway Res. Rec. 28–59.
Cable, J. K., D. Y. Lee, F. Wayne, and J. R. Rohde. 1988. “Remote pavement performance monitoring.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1215: 115–123.
Castro, A. J., N. Tran, M. Robbins, D. H. Timm, C. Wagner. 2017. “Further evaluation of limiting strain criteria for perpetual asphalt pavement design.” Transp. Res. Rec.: J. Transp. Res. Board 2640 (1): 41–48. https://doi.org/10.3141/2640-05.
Crovetti, J., N. J. Hornyak, D. Newman, and J. Schabelski. 2007. Perpetual pavements instrumentation for Marquetta interchange project-phase I. Final report (WHRP 07-11). Milwaukee: Marquette Univ.
Čygas, D., A. Laurinavičius, M. Paliukaitė, A. Motiejūnas, L. Žiliūtė, and A. Vaitkus. 2015. “Monitoring the mechanical and structural behavior of the pavement structure using electronic sensors.” Comput.-Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng. 30 (4): 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1111/mice.12104.
Di Benedetto, H., F. Olard, C. Sauzéat, and B. Delaporte. 2011. “Linear viscoelastic behaviour of bituminous materials: From binders to mixes.” Supplement, Road Mater. Pavement Des. 5 (S1): 163–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2004.9689992.
Di Graziano, A., V. Marchetta, and S. Cafiso. 2020. “Structural health monitoring of asphalt pavements using smart sensor networks: A comprehensive review.” J. Traffic Transp. Eng. 7 (5): 639–-651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtte.2020.08.001.
Dunnicliff, J. 1982. Geotechnical instrumentation for monitoring field performance. National cooperative highway research program (NCHRP), synthesis of highway practice, 89. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.
Duong, N., J. Blanc, P. Hornych, B. Bouveret, J. Carroget, and Y. Le Feuvre. 2018. “Continuous strain monitoring of an instrumented pavement section.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 20 (12): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2018.1432859.
FHWA (Federal Highway Administration). 2022. Office of highway policy information, installation of strain gauges strip sensor. Weigh-in-motion (WIM) sensors. Washington, DC: FHWA.
FT Technologies. 2022 “Acoustic resonance measurement system, UK.” Accessed May 19, 2022. https://fttechnologies.com/wind-sensors/acu-restechnology/#AcousticResonanceMeasurementSystem.
Goel, A., and A. Das. 2006. “A brief review on different surface wave methods and their applicability for non-destructive evaluation of pavements.” In Proc., Highway Geophysics—NDE Conf., 337–350. Rolla, MO: Univ. of Missouri.
Goel, A., and A. Das. 2008. “Non-destructive testing of asphalt pavements for structural condition evaluation: A state of the art.” Nondestruct. Test. Eval. 23 (2): 121–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10589750701848697.
Haugen, T., J. R. Levy, E. Aakre, and M. E. P. Tello. 2016. “Weigh-in-motion equipment—Experiences and challenges.” Transp. Res. Procedia 14 (Jan): 1423–1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2016.05.215.
HBM. 2020. “Renamed HBK in 2020.” Accessed May 19, 2022. https://www.hbm.com/en/.
Hoffman, M. S., and M. R. Thompson. 1982. “Comparative study of selected nondestructive testing devices.” Transp. Res. Board 852: 32–41.
Howard, I. L., and K. A. Warren. 2008. “Innovative data acquisition for heavily instrumented flexible pavements.” J. Comput. Civ. Eng. 22 (3): 206–215. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3801(2008)22:3(206).
Indian Roads Congress. 2018. Guidelines for design of flexible pavements IRC-37 fourth revision. New Delhi, India: Indian Roads Congress.
ISO. 2018. Solar energy-specification and classification of instruments for measuring hemispherical solar and direct solar radiation. ISO 9060. Geneva: ISO.
Jones, S. B., J. M. Wraith, and D. Or. 2002. “Time domain reflectometry measurement principles and applications.” Hydrol. Processes 16 (1): 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.513.
Josephine Sathya, M. A., and S. P. Victor. 2015. “Noise reduction techniques and algorithms for speech signal processing.” Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 6 (12): 317–322.
Kara De Maeijer, P., G. Luyckx, C. Vuye, E. Voet, W. Vandenbergh, S. Vanlanduit, J. Braspenninckx, N. Stevens, and J. Wolf. 2019. “Fiber optics sensors in asphalt pavement: State-of-the-art review.” Infrastructures 4 (2): 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures4020036.
Kavussi, A., M. Abbasghorbani, M. Moghadas, and A. Bamdad Ziksari. 2017. “A new method to determine maintenance and repair activities at network-level pavement management using falling weight deflectometer.” J. Civ. Eng. Manage. 23 (3): 338–346. https://doi.org/10.3846/13923730.2015.1073173.
Li, H., Y. He, and J. Harvey. 2016a. “Human thermal comfort: Modeling the impact of different cool pavement strategies.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2575 (1): 92–102. https://doi.org/10.3141/2575-10.
Li, H., D. Jones, and J. Harvey. 2012. “Development of mechanistic–empirical design procedure for fully permeable pavement under heavy traffic.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2305 (1): 83–94. https://doi.org/10.3141/2305-09.
Li, H., D. Jones, R. Wu, and J. Harvey. 2016b. “Development and validation of a mechanistic–empirical design method for permeable interlocking concrete pavement.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2590 (1): 74–83. https://doi.org/10.3141/2590-09.
Maadani, O., A. O. Abd El Halim, and N. Mostafa. 2015. “Instrumentation for monitoring pavement performance in cold regions.” J. Cold Reg. Eng. 29 (4): 04014017. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CR.1943-5495.0000087.
Mallick, R. B., A. Das, and S. Nazarian. 2005. “Fast non destructive field test method to determine stiffness of subsurface layer in thin surface hot mix asphalt pavement.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1905 (1): 82–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198105190500109.
Mallick, R. B., and S. Nazarian. 2006. “In-place determination of stiffness of subsurface reclaimed layers in thin surface hot mix asphalt pavements fast non destructive test and analysis method.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1949 (1): 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198106194900102.
Mallick, R. B., S. O’Brien, and D. Humphrey. 2006. “Analysis of pavement response data and use of nondestructive testing for improving pavement design and adoption of mechanistic-empirical pavement design procedure using the gilford route 15 instrumented pavement test section: First annual report.” Accessed May 19, 2022. https://ntlrepository.blob.core.windows.net/lib/56000/56000/56010/ME-REPORT0401AI1.PDF.
Morey, R. 1998. Ground penetrating radar for evaluating subsurface conditions for transportation facilities. Synthesis of highway practice 255. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2009. NDT technology for quality assurance of HMA pavement construction. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
NCHRP (National Cooperative Highway Research Program). 2004. Guide for mechanistic-empirical design of new and rehabilitated pavement structures. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board National Research Council.
Newcomb, D. E., D. H. Timm, and J. R. Willis. 2020. Perpetual pavements: A manual of practice. Quality improvement publication 130. Greenbelt, MD: National Asphalt Pavement Association.
Nidhi, M., and M. S. Nagakumar. 2013. “Applications of layered theory for the analysis of flexible pavements.” Int. J. Res. Eng. Technol. 2 (1): 200.
Onmi Instruments. 2018. “Data logger & data acquisition systems.” Accessed May 22, 2022. https://www.omniinstruments.co.uk/applications.html.
Plati, C., A. Loizos, and K. Gkyrtis. 2020. “Integration of non-destructive testing methods to assess asphalt pavement thickness.” NDT & E Int. 115 (Oct): 102292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2020.102292.
Potter, J. F., H. C. Mayhew, and A. P. Mayo. 1969. Instrumentation of the full scale experiment on A1 trunk road at Conington, Huntingdonshire. Report LR296. Berks, UK: Road Research Lab.
Saarenketo, T., and T. Scullion. 2000. “Road evaluation with ground penetrating radar.” J. Appl. Geophys. 43 (2–4): 119–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-9851(99)00052-X.
Sabri, N., S. A. Aljunid, M. S. Salim, and S. Fouad. 2015. “Fiber optic sensors: Short review and applications.” In Vol. 204 of Recent trends in physics of material science and technology. Springer series in materials science, edited by F. Gaol, K. Shrivastava, and J. Akhtar. Singapore: Springer.
Saevarsdottir, T., S. Erlingsson, and H. Carlsson. 2014. “Instrumentation and performance modelling of heavy vehicle simulator tests.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 17 (2): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2014.972957.
Scullion, T., J. Uzan, J. Yazdani, and P. Chan. 1988. Field evaluation of the multi-depth deflectometers. Interim research report. College Station, TX: Texas A&M Univ. System.
Sebaaly, P., N. Tabatabaee, and B. Kulakowski. 1995. “Evaluation of the hall effect sensor for pavement instrumentation.” J. Test. Eval. 23 (3): 189–195. https://doi.org/10.1520/JTE10409J.
Sebaaly, P. E., N. Tabatabaee, B. Kulakowski, and T. Scullion. 1991. Instrumentation for flexible pavements—Field performance of selected sensors. Washington, DC: FHWA.
Sebaaly, P. E., N. Tabatabaee, and T. Scullion. 1992. “Comparison of backcalculated moduli from falling weight deflectometer and truck loading.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1377: 17–25.
SISGEO. n.d. “Geotechnical Instruments and Structural Health Monitoring.” Accessed May 20, 2022. https://www.sisgeo.com/products/pressure-cells.html.
South African National Roads Agency Ltd. 2014. “Pavement design chapter 10.” In South African pavement engineering manual. Pretoria: South African National Roads Agency Ltd.
Swett, L., R. B. Mallick, and D. N. Humphrey. 2008. “A study of temperature and traffic load related response in different layers in an instrumented flexible pavement.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 9 (5): 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298430701576117.
Tabatabaee, N., and P. Sebaaly. 1990. “State-of-the-art pavement instrumentation.” Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board 1260: 246–255.
Timm, D. H., A. L. Priest, and V. Thomas. 2004. Design and Instrumentation of the Structural Pavement Experiment at the NCAT Test Track. Auburn, AL: National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn Univ.
Topp, G. C., J. L. Davis, and A. P. Annan. 1980. “Electromagnetic determination of soil water content: Measurements in coaxial transmission lines.” Water Recourse Res. 16 (3): 574–582. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR016i003p00574.
Van Deusen, D. A., D. Newcomb, and J. F. Labuz. 1992. “A review of instrumentation technology for the Minnesota road research project.” Accessed May 20, 2022. https://hdl.handle.net/11299/156905.
Van Herwaarden, A. W., and P. M. Sarro. 1986. “Thermal sensors based on the seebeck effect.” Sens. Actuators 10 (3–4): 321–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/0250-6874(86)80053-1.
Vaseghi, S. V. 2008. Advanced digital signal processing and noise reduction. 4th ed. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Wang, H., and P. Xiang. 2018. “Optical fiber sensor based in-field structural performance monitoring of multilayered asphalt pavement.” J. Lightwave Technol. 36 (17): 3624–3632. https://doi.org/10.1109/JLT.2018.2838122.
Wang, M. L., and R. Birken. 2014. “Sensing solutions for assessing and monitoring roads.” In Vol. 56 of Woodhead publishing series in electronic and optical materials, sensor technologies for civil infrastructures, 461–496. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
Willis, J. R., and D. Timm. 2009. Field-based strain thresholds for flexible perpetual pavement design. Auburn, AL: Auburn Univ.
Yiqiu, T., W. Haipeng, M. Shaojun, and X. Huining. 2014. “Quality control of asphalt pavement compaction using fibre bragg grating sensing technology.” Constr. Build. Mater. 54 (Mar): 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.12.032.
Yoder, N. C., and D. E. Adams. 2014. “Commonly used sensors for civil infrastructures and their associated algorithms.” In Vol. 55 of Woodhead publishing series in electronic and optical materials, sensor technologies for civil infrastructures, 57–85. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
Zhou, Z., W. Liu, Y. Huang, H. Wang, H. Jianping, M. Huang, and O. Jinping. 2012. “Optical fiber Bragg grating sensor assembly for 3D strain monitoring and its case study in highway pavement.” Mech. Syst. Sig. Process. 28 (Apr): 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2011.10.003.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part B: Pavements
Volume 149 • Issue 2 • June 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Published online: Apr 5, 2023
Published in print: Jun 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Sep 5, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.