Performance Evaluation of Fly Ash–Based Inverted Pavement System
Publication: Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part B: Pavements
Volume 148, Issue 2
Abstract
The inverted pavement system is an alternate type of pavement system compared to rigid and flexible pavement systems. The base layer of inverted pavements is generally a cement-treated layer with varied cement content, depending on the unconfined compressive strength criteria and durability. In the present study, fly ash was used as a replacement for aggregate in the cemented base layer; in the cemented subbase layer, only fly ash and cement were used. An optimized combination of fly ash (22%), aggregate (78%), and cement (3%) was used for the cemented base layer. For the cemented subbase layer, 7% cement and 93% fly ash were used. Therefore, 22% aggregate in cemented base and 100% aggregate in cemented subbase layer can be saved. For the field investigation, a test track was constructed for 0.5 million standard axles (MSA), and performance was monitored with both nondestructive testing (NDT), that is, falling weight deflectometer (FWD), Benkelman beam deflection (BBD), and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), and destructive testing (actual loading, plate load test and dynamic cone penetration test) on the test track. The NDT testing showed that the cemented layers performed well. However, it was found that the pavement failed prematurely under actual loading. The plate load test showed that crack relief failed because of compaction issues. Last, finite-element modeling of the test section using PLAXIS 3D version 2013 showed the vertical stress distribution in the inverted pavement.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the funding by the Department of Science and Technology in India under project GAP-4537.
References
ARA (Applied Research Associates). 2004. Guide for mechanistic-empirical design of new and rehabilitated pavement structures. Washington, DC: National Cooperative Highway Research Program.
Arora, S., and A. H. Aydilek. 2005. “Class F fly-ash-amended soils as highway base materials.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 17 (6): 640–649. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2005)17:6(640).
ASTM. 2003. Standard test method for use of the dynamic cone penetrometer in shallow pavement applications. ASTM D6951-03. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2016a. Standard test method for nonrepetitive static plate load tests of soils and flexible pavement components, for use in evaluation and design of airport and highway pavements. ASTM D1196. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2018. Standard test method for use of dynamic cone penetrometer in shallow pavement applications. ASTM 6951. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2015. Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete. ASTM C618. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2016b. Standard test method for pulse velocity through concrete. ASTM C597. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Athanasopoulou, A. 2014. “Addition of lime and fly ash to improve highway subgrade soils.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 26 (4): 773–775. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000856.
Austroads. 2004. Pavement design: A guide to the structural design of road pavements. Sydney, NSW, Australia: Austroads.
Austroads. 2012. Guide to pavement technology part 2: Pavement structural design. Sydney, NSW, Australia: Austroads.
Barksdale, R. D. 1984. “Performance of crushed-stone base courses.” Transp. Res. Rec. 954 (1): 78–87.
Bin-Shafique, S., K. Rahman, M. Yaykiran, and I. Azfar. 2010. “The long-term performance of two fly ash stabilized fine-grained soil subbases.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 54 (10): 666–672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2009.11.007.
Chen, X., Z. Zhang, and J. R. Lambert. 2014. “Field performance evaluation of stone interlayer pavement in Louisiana.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 15 (8): 708–717. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2013.857774.
Dimter, S., T. Rukavina, and V. Drag [cbreve] ević. 2011. “Strength properties of fly ash stabilized mixes.” Road Mater. Pavement Des. 12 (3): 687–697. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2011.9695266.
Disfani, M. M., A. Arulrajah, H. Haghighi, A. Mohammadinia, and S. Horpibulsuk. 2014. “Flexural beam fatigue strength evaluation of crushed brick as a supplementary material in cement stabilized recycled concrete aggregates.” Constr. Build. Mater. 68 (Oct): 667–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.007.
Douglas, R. A. 2018. Low-volume road engineering: Design, construction, and maintenance. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
George, K. P. 2002. Minimizing cracking in cement-treated materials for improved performance (No. R&D Bulletin RD123). New York: Portland Cement Association.
Goel, A., and A. Das. 2008. “Nondestructive testing of asphalt pavements for structural condition evaluation: A state of the art.” Nondestruct. Test. Eval. 23 (2): 121–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10589750701848697.
Halsted, G. E., D. R. Luhr, and W. S. Adaska. 2006. Guide to cement-treated base (CTB). New York: Portland Cement Association.
Hossain, M. S., H. Nair, and H. C. Ozyildirim. 2017. Determination of mechanical properties for cement-treated aggregate base. Reston, VA: Virginia Transportation Research Council.
Hoy, M., R. Rachan, S. Horpibulsuk, A. Arulrajah, and M. Mirzababaei. 2017. “Effect of wetting–drying cycles on compressive strength and microstructure of recycled asphalt pavement–Fly ash geopolymer.” Constr. Build. Mater. 144: 624–634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.243.
IRC (Indian Road Congress). 2012. Guidelines for the design of flexible pavements. IRC 37. New Delhi, India: IRC.
IRC (Indian Road Congress). 2014. Guidelines for structural evaluation and strengthening of flexible road. IRC 115. New Delhi, India: IRC.
IS (Indian Standard). 1983. Methods of test for soils part 8 determination of water content-dry density relation using heavy compaction. IS 2720 (Part8). New Delhi, India: IS.
Ismail, A., M. S. Baghini, M. R. Karim, F. Shokri, R. A. Al-Mansob, A. A. Firoozi, and A. A. Firoozi. 2014. “Laboratory investigation on the strength characteristics of cement-treated base.” Appl. Mech. Mater. 507: 353–360. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.507.353.
Kaniraj, S. R., and V. Gayathri. 2004. “Permeability and consolidation characteristics of compacted fly ash.” J. Energy Eng. 130 (1): 18–43. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9402(2004)130:1(18).
Kumar, B., G. K. Tike, and P. K. Nanda. 2007. “Evaluation of properties of high-volume fly-ash concrete for pavements.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 19 (10): 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19:10(906).
Kumar, P., and S. K. Sharma. 2013. “Prediction of equivalency factors for various subbase and base courses.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25 (10): 1357–1365. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000703.
Lewis, D. E., K. Ledford, T. Georges, and D. M. Jared. 2012. “Construction and performance of inverted pavements in Georgia.” Accessed August 10, 2018. http://www.dot.ga.gov/BuildSmart/research/Documents/GDOT_12-1872_Edited.pdf.
Litwinowicz, A., and M. De Beer. 2013. “Long-term crushing performance of lightly cementitious pavement materials–update to the South African procedure.” Road Mater. Pavement Des. 14 (3): 461–484. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2012.755934.
Mahamaya, M., and S. K. Das. 2017. “Characterization of mine overburden and fly ash as a stabilized pavement material.” Part. Sci. Technol. 35 (6): 660–666. https://doi.org/10.1080/02726351.2016.1194344.
Mohammadinia, A., A. Arulrajah, S. Horpibulsuk, and A. Chinkulkijniwat. 2017. “Effect of fly ash on properties of crushed brick and reclaimed asphalt in pavement base/subbase applications.” J. Hazard. Mater. 321 (Jan): 547–556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.09.039.
Mohammadinia, A., A. Arulrajah, I. Phummiphan, S. Horpibulsuk, and M. Mirzababaei. 2019. “Flexural fatigue strength of demolition aggregates stabilized with alkali-activated calcium carbide residue.” Constr. Build. Mater. 199 (Feb): 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.031.
MoRD (Ministry of Rural Development). 2014. Specification for rural roads. New Delhi, India: Indian Road Congress.
Nagabhushana, M. N., U. K. Guru Vittal, A. Mittal, and S. Pandey. 2018. Development of technology for use of fly ash in road construction using accelerated pavement testing facility. New Delhi, India: Dept. of Science and Technology.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2013. Practices for unbound aggregate pavement layers. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2014. Characterization of cementitiously stabilized layers for use in pavement design and analysis. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
NHAI (National Highway Authority of India). 2018. “National highway summary.” Accessed October 25, 2018. http://nhai.org/indian-road-network.htm.
Operating Instructions. 2002. Schmidt, concrete test hammer: Type N and NR. Zurich: Operating Instructions.
Papadopoulos, E., D. D. Cortes, and J. Carlos Santamarina. 2016. “In-situ assessment of the stress-dependent stiffness of unbound aggregate bases: Application in inverted base pavements.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 17 (10): 870–877. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2015.1022779.
Papadopoulos, E., and J. C. Santamarina. 2016. “Analysis of inverted base pavements with thin-asphalt layers.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 17 (7): 590–601. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2015.1007232.
Papadopoulos, E., and J. C. Santamarina. 2019. “Inverted base pavements: Construction and performance.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 20 (6): 697–703. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2017.1326237.
Rakesh, N., A. K. Jain, M. A. Reddy, and K. S. Reddy. 2006. “Artificial neural networks—genetic algorithm based model for backcalculation of pavement layer moduli.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 7 (3): 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298430500495113.
Reddy, M. A., K. S. Reddy, and B. B. Pandey. 2004. “Selection of genetic algorithm parameters for backcalculation of pavement moduli.” Int. J. Pavement Eng. 5 (2): 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298430412331309106.
Santamarina, J. C. 2014. “Inverted base pavements: New field test and design catalogue (No. RP 11-28). Georgia.” Accessed December 15, 2018. https://trid.trb.org/view/1346747.
SAPEM (South African Pavement Engineering Manual). 2013. Pavement design. South Africa: SAPEM.
Saride, S., D. Avirneni, and S. Challapalli. 2016. “Micro-mechanical interaction of activated fly ash mortar and reclaimed asphalt pavement materials.” Constr. Build. Mater. 123 (Oct): 424–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.016.
Sharma, S., and A. Das. 2008. “Backcalculation of pavement layer moduli from falling weight deflectometer data using an artificial neural network.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 35 (1): 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1139/L07-083.
Solanki, P., N. Khoury, and M. M. Zaman. 2009. “Engineering properties and moisture susceptibility of silty clay stabilized with lime, class C fly ash, and cement kiln dust.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 21 (12): 749–757. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2009)21:12(749).
Terrell, R. G., B. R. Cox, K. H. Stokoe, J. J. Allen, and D. Lewis. 2003. “Field evaluation of the stiffness of unbound aggregate base layers in inverted flexible pavements.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1837 (1): 50–60. https://doi.org/10.3141/1837-06.
Theyse, H. L., M. De Beer, and F. C. Rust. 1996. “Overview of South African mechanistic pavement design method.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1539 (1): 6–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198196153900102.
Tutumluer, E., and R. D. Barksdale. 1995. “Inverted flexible pavement response and performance.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1482 (1): 102–110.
Xuan, D. X., L. J. M. Houben, A. A. A. Molenaar, and Z. H. Shui. 2012. “Mechanical properties of cement-treated aggregate material—A review.” Mater. Des. 33 (Jan): 496–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2011.04.055.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part B: Pavements
Volume 148 • Issue 2 • June 2022
Copyright
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: May 5, 2020
Accepted: Jan 4, 2022
Published online: Apr 5, 2022
Published in print: Jun 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Sep 5, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Rohit Kumar Sharma, Dharamveer Singh, Satyanarayana Murty Dasaka, Determination of engineering properties of cementitiously stabilised aggregates using ultrasonic pulse velocity, Road Materials and Pavement Design, 10.1080/14680629.2024.2324951, (1-23), (2024).
- Jingxiao Zhang, Zhe Zhu, Hongyong Liu, Jian Zuo, Yongjian Ke, Simon P. Philbin, Zhendong Zhou, Yunlong Feng, Qichang Ni, System Framework for Digital Monitoring of the Construction of Asphalt Concrete Pavement Based on IoT, BeiDou Navigation System, and 5G Technology, Buildings, 10.3390/buildings13020503, 13, 2, (503), (2023).
- Ning Wang, Chao Zhang, Tao Ma, Feng Chen, Yang Zhang, Jinglin Zhang, Xunhao Ding, Damage Evolution Analysis in Cementitious Mixtures Using Acoustic Emission Techniques, Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part B: Pavements, 10.1061/JPEODX.PVENG-1258, 149, 3, (2023).
- Shahbaz Khan, Prabin Kumar Ashish, Venkatasrinivas Kannelli, Kamal Hossain, M.N. Nagabhushana, Devesh Tiwari, Potential application of over-burnt brick and fly ash for sustainable inverted pavement structure, Construction and Building Materials, 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128298, 345, (128298), (2022).
- Amir Mostafa Hatami, Mohammad Reza Sabour, Alireza Joshaghani, Research trends on ash stabilization in the pavement during 2002–2021, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 10.1007/s11356-022-22250-2, 30, 1, (1611-1621), (2022).