State-of-the-Art Review of Mass Timber Design Standards and Specifications
Publication: Journal of Architectural Engineering
Volume 30, Issue 4
Abstract
Mass timber (MT) is an engineered wood product that has been widely used in Europe and is rapidly gaining popularity in the United States (US). MT structural members consist of multiple wood components connected using adhesives and/or mechanical fasteners. Although wood is a common material in the US, MT is not readily available in the US. Some US structural engineers are reluctant to include MT as a potential construction material in their building designs due to limited MT material availability, cost, and unfamiliarity with MT as a construction material. This unfamiliarity stems from limited US MT education and lack of MT experience at the professional level. This paper attempts to provide a broad-brush MT review for architects and structural engineers interested in incorporating MT in their designs on relevant standards and specifications. Guidelines for designing with MT are provided in the International Code Council’s 2024 International Building Code (2024 IBC) under “Type IV Construction.” The Type IV construction description was initially greatly expanded in the 2021 IBC to allow for tall MT buildings and continues to be included in the 2024 IBC. This paper identifies and reviews the 2024 IBC criteria related to MT. Additionally, discussion is included on military standards pertinent to MT. The composite action of an MT element is highly dependent on the adhesive behavior used to attach the MT member laminations. Consequently, adhesives used with MT members and the testing protocol to validate satisfactory adhesive behavior are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or codes that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the US Army Corps of Engineers Engineer Research and Development Center for financial support for this research work.
References
AITC (American Institute of Timber Construction). 2007. Test methods for structural glued laminated timber. Centennial, CO: AITC.
ANSI (American National Standards Institute). 2019. Fire-resistance ratings. ANSI/UL 263. Washington, DC: ANSI.
ANSI/APA (American National Standards Institute/American Psychological Association). 2020. “Standard for performance-rated cross-laminated timber. PRG 320-2019. Tacoma, WA: APA—Engineered Wood Association.
ANSI/APA (American National Standards Institute/American Psychological Association). 2022. Product standard for structural glued laminated timber. A190.1-2022. Tacoma, WA: APA—Engineered Wood Association.
ANSI/APA (American National Standards Institute/American Psychological Association). 2023. Standard for adhesives for use in structural glued laminated timber. PRG 405-2023. Tacoma, WA: APA—Engineered Wood Association.
ASCE. 2022. Minimum design loads and associated criteria for buildings and other structures. ASCE Standard 7-22. Reston, VA: ASCE.
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers). 2022. Energy standard for buildings except low-rise residential buildings. ASHRAE Standard 90.1. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASTM. 2017. Standard test method for evaluating the shear strength of adhesive bonds in laminated wood products at elevated temperatures. ASTM D7247. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2018a. Standard specification for adhesives for bonded structural wood products for use under exterior exposure conditions. ASTM D2559. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2018b. Standard test method for multiple-cycle accelerated aging test (automatic boil test) for exterior wet use wood adhesives. ASTM D3434. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2021a. Standard test method for strength properties of adhesive bonds in shear by compression loading. ASTM D905. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2021b. Standard practices for resistance of adhesives to cyclic laboratory aging conditions. ASTM D1183. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2022a. Standard practice for effect of moisture and temperature on adhesive bonds. ASTM D1151. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2022b. Standard test methods for fire tests of building construction and materials. ASTM E119. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
AWC (American Wood Council). 2021. Special design provisions for wind and seismic (SDPWS). Leesburg, VA: AWC.
AWC (American Wood Council). 2024a. National design specifications for wood construction (NDS). Leesburg, VA: AWC.
AWC (American Wood Council). 2024b. NDS supplement. Leesburg, VA: AWC.
Bingham, S. 2023. “The aesthetics of mass timber: Considerations for structural, external and interior design.” Sustainable BIZ Canada. Accessed March 19, 2024. https://sustainablebiz.ca/the-aesthetics-of-mass-timber-considerations-for-structural-external-and-interior-design/.
Brandon, D., M. Klipple, and A. Frangi. 2021. Glueline integrity in fire. RISE Rep. No. 2021:107. Gothenburg, Sweden: RISE Research Institutes of Sweden.
Breneman, S., E. McDonnell, B. Tremayne, D. Lianes, J. Houston, M. Gu, R. Zimmerman, and G. Montgomery. 2023. CLT diaphragm design guide. Washington, DC: WoodWorks, Wood Product Council.
Breneman, S., M. Timmers, and D. Richardson. 2021. “Tall wood buildings in the 2021 IBC.” WoodWorks. Accessed June 20, 2023. https://www.woodworks.org/resources/tall-wood-buildings-in-the-2021-ibc-up-to-18-stories-of-mass-timber/.
Breyer, D., K. Cobeen, and Z. Martin. 2019. Design of wood structures ASC/LRFD. 8th ed. New York: McGraw Hill.
Campbell, A. 2019. “Mass timber in the circular economy: Paradigm in practice.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.—Eng. Sustainability 172 (3): 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1680/jensu.17.00069.
Concu, G. 2019. Lumber-based mass timber products in construction. London: IntechOpen.
Cristescu, C., et al. 2020. Design for deconstruction and reuse of timber structures—State of the art review. 1 RISE Report 2020:05. Gothenburg, Sweden: InFutUReWood Report.
CSA (Canadian Standard Association). 2010. Evaluation of adhesives for structural wood products (Exterior exposure). CSA 0112.9. Toronto: CSA.
CSA (Canadian Standard Association). 2023. Qualification code for manufacturers of structural glued-laminated timber. CSA 0177. Toronto: CSA.
DeStefano, J., and R. Way. 2021. Cross-laminated timber diaphragms. STRUCTURE magazine. Chicago, IL: National Council of Structural Engineers Associations.
Fitzpatrick Engineering. 2019. “Seismic response modification factor—R.” Accessed June 10, 2024. https://www.fegstructural.com/seismic-response-modification-factor-r/.
HKS. 2022. “Why mass timber makes sense—And saves dollars.” Newsletter October 7, 2022, HKS Inc. Accessed March 19, 2024. https://www.hksinc.com/our-news/articles/why-mass-timber-makes-sense/.
Hunter, M. 2024. An introduction to mass timber buildings in the IBC. Leesburg, VA: American Wood Council Webinar.
ICC (International Code Council). 2018. International building code. Washington, DC: ICC.
ICC (International Code Council). 2020. Mass timber buildings and the IBC. Washington, DC: International Code Council and the American Wood Council.
ICC (International Code Council). 2021a. International building code. Washington, DC: ICC.
ICC (International Code Council). 2021b. International energy conservation code. Washington, DC: ICC.
ICC (International Code Council). 2024. International building code. Washington, DC: ICC.
Jahedi, S., L. Muszynski, M. Riggio, and R. Gupta. 2019. “Evaluation of bond integrity in low-value blue-stain ponderosa pine CLT.” In Proc., 62nd Int. Convention of Society of Wood Science and Technology. Yosemite, CA: Tenaya Lodge.
McLain, R. 2018. Accoustics and mass timber room-to-room noise control. WW-WSP-11. Washington, DC: Woodworks, Wood Products Council.
Redmore, L., S. Marshall, J. Kusel, D. Kunches, R. Anderson, Z. Waton, and A. Wright. 2021. Mass timber and other innovative wood products in California: A study of barriers and potential solutions to grow the state’s sustainable wood products sector. Sacramento, CA: Board of Forestry and Joint Institute for Wood Products Innovation.
Riddle, A. 2023. Mass timber: Overview and issues for congress. CRS Rep. No. R47752. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
SmartLam. 2020. Cross-laminated timber specification guide 2020. Dothan, AL: SmartLam North America.
Smith, R., G. Griffin, and T. Rice. 2015. Solid timber construction: Process, practice, performance—Off-site studies. Salt Lake City: Univ. of Utah.
UFC (Unified Facilities Criteria). 2023. “DOD building code.” Accessed June 3, 2023. https://www.wbdg.org/ffc/dod/unified-facilities-criteria-ufc.
UFGS (Unified Facilities Guide Specifications). 2021. “Unified facilities guide specifications.” Accessed June 8, 2023. https://www.wbdg.org/ffc/dod/unified-facilities-guide-specifications-ufgs.
ULC (Underwriters Laboratories of Canada). 2014. Standard methods of fire endurance tests of building construction materials. CAN/ULC S101. Toronto: ULC.
USACE (US Army Corps of Engineers). 2023. Mandatory consideration of mass timber in army military construction (MILCON) and civil works vertical construction projects. Engineering and Construction Bulletin Rep. No. 2023-14. Washington, DC: USACE.
USDA (US Department of Agriculture). 2021. Wood handbook. General Technical Rep. No. FPL-GTR-282. Madison, WI: Forest Products Laboratory.
WoodWorks. 2021a. Mass timber design manual. Washington, DC: WoodWorks Wood Products Council.
WoodWorks. 2021b. “Exterior walls in mass timber buildings—Part 1. Code requirements and commonly used materials.” WoodWorks Wood Products Council. Accessed March 20, 2024. https://www.woodworks.org/resources/exterior-walls-in-mass-timber-buildings-code-requirements/.
WoodWorks. 2016. Construction advantages sell hotel developer on CLT; WoodWorks case study WW-020. Washington, DC: WoodWorks Wood Products Council.
WoodWorks. 2022. “Inventory of acoustically tested mass timber assemblies.” WoodWorks Wood Products Council. Accessed June 13, 2026. https://www.woodworks.org/wp-content/uploads/Acoustically-Tested-Mass-Timber-Assemblies-WoodWorks.pdf.
Zelinka, S., S. Pei, N. Bechle, K. Sullivan, N. Ottum, D. Rammer, and L. E. Hasburgh. 2018a. “Performance of wood adhesives for cross laminated timber under elevated temperature.” In Proc., WCTE 2018-World Conf. on Timber Engineering. Seoul, Republic of Korea: Korean Institute of Forest Science.
Zelinka, S., K. Sullivan, S. Pei, N. Ottum, N. Bechle, D. Rammer, and L. Hasburgh. 2019. “Small scale tests on the performance of adhesives used in cross laminated timber (CLT) at elevated temperatures.” Int. J. Adhes. Adhes. 95: 102436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2019.102436.
Zelinka, S. L., L. E. Hasburgh, K. J. Bourne, D. R. Tucholski, and J. P. Ouellette. 2018b. Compartment fire testing of a two-story mass timber building. Technical Rep. No. FPL-GTR-247. Madison, WI: Forest Products Laboratory, US Forest Service.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Architectural Engineering
Volume 30 • Issue 4 • December 2024
Copyright
© 2024 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Dec 22, 2023
Accepted: Jun 27, 2024
Published online: Sep 19, 2024
Published in print: Dec 1, 2024
Discussion open until: Feb 19, 2025
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.