Model-Based Demand Control Ventilation for a Gun Range
Publication: Journal of Architectural Engineering
Volume 30, Issue 1
Abstract
Gun ranges in the United States are underinvestigated regarding indoor air quality (IAQ) and energy efficiency. Navy Environmental Health Center (NEHC), National Guard Bureau (NGB), and Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (AFCESA) recommend using 100% outdoor air, but this measure will cause prohibitive energy costs since indoor gun ranges must maintain a low air velocity ranging from 0.25 to 0.36 m/s and a supply temperature close to the range target temperature. Hence, typical commercial firing ranges use a fixed outdoor air ratio (OAR) ranging from 25% to 30% together with high-efficiency particulate air filtration to save energy. This OAR is arbitrary and not supported by any standards or guidelines. To obtain reliable control of contaminant levels and better energy efficiency, we propose a model-based demand control ventilation feedback control strategy in which carbon monoxide is monitored and controlled as a proper IAQ indicator around the clock. Our 52-day field study demonstrates that our demand control ventilation control strategy can ensure proper IAQ, reduce the OAR from 30% to as low as 2.5%, and cut up to 85% cooling load and 70% heating load introduced by ventilation.
Practical Applications
Indoor gun ranges in the United States often struggle with keeping the air clean and energy costs down. Existing recommendations suggest using a lot of outdoor air for ventilation, but this can be expensive because gun ranges need to maintain specific air conditions. Most gun ranges use a fixed amount of outdoor air and special filters to save energy, even though there are no clear guidelines for this. To tackle these issues, we have come up with a smart ventilation system. It constantly checks the air for carbon monoxide, a sign of bad air quality. Our 52-day study showed that this system works considerably well. It keeps the air clean, reduces the need for outdoor air substantially, and cuts down on heating and cooling costs. This means that indoor gun ranges can have clean air and save energy at the same time. It is a practical and efficient solution for making indoor shooting ranges safer and more cost-effective.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or codes that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
AAF (American Air Filters). 2017. Indoor firing range clean air solutions. Flanders, Louisville, KY: AAF.
AFCESA (Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency). 2011. Small arms range design and construction. Florida: AFCESA.
Anania, T. L., and J. A. Set. 1975. “Lead exposure and design considerations for indoor firing ranges.” DHHS (NIOSH) Publication Number 76-130. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/76-130/.
Ase, P., W. Eisenberg, S. Gordon, K. Taylor, and A. Snelson. 1985. “Propellant combustion product analyses on an M16 rifle and a 105 mm caliber gun.” J. Environ. Sci. Health. Part A Environ. Sci. Health Part A Environ. Sci. Eng 20 (3): 337–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934528509375229.
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers). 2022. Ventilation and acceptable indoor air quality. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Beaucham, C., E. Page, W. A. Alarcon, G. M. Calvert, M. Methner, and T. M. Schoonover. 2014. “Indoor firing ranges and elevated blood lead levels—United States, 2002–2013.” MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. 63 (16): 347.
Chao, C. Y. H., and J. S. Hu. 2004. “Development of a dual-mode demand control ventilation strategy for indoor air quality control and energy saving.” Build. Environ. 39 (4): 385–397. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.buildenv.2003.11.001.
Demmeler, M., D. Nowak, and R. Schierl. 2009. “High blood lead levels in recreational indoor-shooters.” Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 82 (4): 539–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-008-0348-7.
Heinsohn, R. J., and J. M. Cimbala. 2003. Indoor air quality engineering: Environmental health and control of indoor pollutants. New York: Marcel Dekker.
IMC (International Mechanical Code). 2015. International mechanical code. Washington, DC: International Code Council.
Jensen, T. L., J. F. Moxnes, E. Unneberg, and O. Dullum. 2014. “Calculation of decomposition products from components of gunpowder by using ReaxFF reactive force field molecular dynamics and thermodynamic calculations of equilibrium composition.” Propellants Explos. Pyrotech. 39 (6): 830–837. https://doi.org/10.1002/prep.201300198.
Kardous, A. C. 2009. Take aim at protecting yourself: Solutions for preventing lead poisoning and hearing loss at indoor firing ranges. Washington, DC: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Klein, M. 2000. “Retrofitting your indoor firing range to improve airflow.” In Proc., 4th National Shooting Range Symp., 216–228. Washington, DC: International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies.
Klein, M., and C. Reh. 1989. Health hazard evaluation report. Washington, DC: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Lach, K., B. Steer, B. Gorbunov, V. Micka, and R. B. Muir. 2014. “Evaluation of exposure to airborne heavy metals at gun shooting ranges.” Ann. Occup. Hyg. 59 (3): 307–323. https://doi.org/10.1093/annhyg/meu097.
McQuiston, F., J. Parker, and J. Spitler. 2005. “Comfort and health—Indoor environmental quality.” In Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning. 6th ed., edited by V. Vargas, 93–114. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Moran, M. P., and D. K. Ott. 2008. Lead free frangible ammunition exposure at United States air force small arms firing ranges, 2005–2007. Brooks City-Base, TX: Air Force Institute for Operational Health, Risk Analysis Directorate, Health and Safety Division.
NEHC (Navy Environmental Health Center). 2002. Indoor firing ranges industrial hygiene technical guide. Portsmouth, VA: NEHC.
NGB (National Guard Bureau). 2006. Policy and responsibilities for inspection, evaluation, and operation of army national guard indoor firing ranges. Arlington, VA: Dept. of the Army and the Air Force—NGB.
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). 1996. NIOSH manual of analytical methods. 4th ed. Washington, DC: NIOSH.
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health). 2007. NIOSH pocket guide to chemical hazards. 3rd ed. Cincinnati: NIOSH.
OSHA (Occupational Safety & Health Administration). 2022. “Standards-29 CFR 1910.1025 lead.” 1910.1025—Lead. | Occupational Safety and Health Administration (osha.gov).
OSHA (Occupational Safety & Health Administration). 2023. “Permissible exposure limits—annotated tables.” https://www.osha.gov/annotated-pels/table-z-1.
Pepper, D. W., and D. Carrington. 2009. Modeling indoor air pollution. London: Imperial College Press and Distributed by World Scientific Publishing.
Ramos, P. A., B. Provencher, S. P. Franks, W. Fink, and K. G. Fries. 2011. Guidance document: indoor firing range design and operations criteria, version 2.0. Washington, DC: U.S. General Services Administration.
Roth, K. W., J. Dieckmann, and J. Brodrick. 2003. “Demand control ventilation.” ASHRAE J. 45 (7): 91–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0300-483X(99)00217-6.
Schell, M. B., S. C. Turner, and R. O. Shim. 1998. “Application of CO2-based demand-controlled ventilation using ASHRAE Standard 62: Optimizing energy use and ventilation.” ASHRAE Trans. 104 (2): 1213–1225.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Architectural Engineering
Volume 30 • Issue 1 • March 2024
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Apr 19, 2023
Accepted: Oct 18, 2023
Published online: Dec 27, 2023
Published in print: Mar 1, 2024
Discussion open until: May 27, 2024
ASCE Technical Topics:
- Air pollution
- Air quality
- Air temperature
- Architectural engineering
- Building systems
- Business management
- Energy efficiency
- Energy engineering
- Engineering fundamentals
- Engineering mechanics
- Environmental engineering
- HVAC
- Indoor environmental quality
- Management methods
- Measurement (by type)
- Pollution
- Practice and Profession
- Quality control
- Temperature (by type)
- Temperature measurement
- Thermal properties
- Thermodynamics
- Ventilation
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.