Long-Term Performance Analysis of Demolition Waste Blends in Pavement Bases Using Experimental and Machine Learning Techniques
Publication: International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 23, Issue 6
Abstract
The use of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) for the production of asphalt mixtures has become a common practice in the pavement industry. However, there have been limited studies on the long-term performance of RAP in the unbound layers of pavements. The main objective of this study was to characterize the resilient modulus (Mr) and long-term permanent deformation responses of RAP blends with recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) in the unbound base and subbase courses of pavements. To this end, up to 70% RAP by dry mass was mixed with RCA to characterize the resilient modulus, long-term permanent deformation, and shear strength responses of the blends through an extensive experimental program. The behavior of RAP/RCA blends was classified according to their permanent deformation responses and the shakedown concept, which indicated that adding up to 30% RAP could provide desirable performance in the unbound pavement layers. The support vector regression (SVR) approach was utilized as a machine learning technique for predicting the Mr and permanent deformation behavior of RAP/RCA blends. Three different kernel types, including linear (linear_svr), radial basis function (rbf_svr), and polynomial (poly_svr), were utilized in developing the machine learning models. The performance of the optimal SVR models for Mr and PS was compared with that of a random forest regression model to evaluate their predictive performance further. Further analyses were provided to validate the developed models. This study aims to promote an increased proportion of recycled aggregates in the design and construction of pavements justified through extensive laboratory characterizations backed up with robust machine learning modeling.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported under Australian Research Council's Linkage Projects funding scheme (project number LP200100052).
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
- ai
- coefficient of the SVR model kernel;
- b
- bias value;
- C
- regularization parameter;
- d
- degree of the polynomial in the svr_polynomial model;
- Ei and Pi
- ith experimental and predicted values, respectively;
- k(x, xi)
- kernel function;
- Mr
- resilient modulus (MPa);
- MrE and MrP
- experimental and predicted resilient moduli, respectively;
- n
- number of data vectors;
- N
- number of load cycles;
- Nsv
- number of support vectors in the SVR models;
- Ntrees and Nfeatures
- number of trees and features in the RFR model, respectively;
- P
- cumulative probability;
- PSE and PSP
- experimental and predicted permanent strain values, respectively;
- R2
- coefficient of determination;
- U and L
- upper and lower limits, respectively;
- wT
- transpose of weight vector;
- Xn, Xmax, Xmin
- normalized, maximum, and minimum of variable X, respectively;
- (xi, yi)
- data vector;
- γ
- kernel coefficient;
- ɛ
- size of the insensitive region in the SVR model;
- ɛp3000, ɛp5000
- permanent strains at cycle 3,000 and 5,000 (%), respectively;
- µ
- arithmetic mean;
- ξi and
- slack variables;
- σ
- standard deviation;
- σc
- confining stress (kPa);
- σd
- deviator stress (kPa); and
- φ(x)
- nonlinear function.
References
AASHTO. 2002. AASHTO guide for design of new rehabilitated pavement structures. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
AASHTO. 2003. Determining the resilient modulus of soils and aggregate materials, standard specifications for transportation materials and methods of sampling and testing. AASHTO T307. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
AASHTO. 2015. Mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide: A manual of practice. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
Abu-Farsakh, M. Y., and H. H. Titi. 2004. “Assessment of direct cone penetration test methods for predicting the ultimate capacity of friction driven piles.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130: 935–944. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:9(935).
Arshad, M., and M. F. Ahmed. 2017. “Potential use of reclaimed asphalt pavement and recycled concrete aggregate in base/subbase layers of flexible pavements.” Constr. Build. Mater. 151: 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.06.028.
Arulrajah, A., E. Yaghoubi, Y. C. Wong, and S. Horpibulsuk. 2017. “Recycled plastic granules and demolition wastes as construction materials: Resilient moduli and strength characteristics.” Constr. Build. Mater. 147: 639–647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.178.
ASTM. 2012. Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using modified effort. ASTM D1557. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bilodeau, J.-P., C. O. Plamondon, and G. Doré. 2016. “Estimation of resilient modulus of unbound granular materials used as pavement base: Combined effect of grain-size distribution and aggregate source frictional properties.” Mater. Struct. 49: 4363–4373. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-016-0793-9.
Borthakur, N., and A. K. Dey. 2020. “Evaluation of group capacity of micropile in soft clayey soil from experimental analysis using SVM-based prediction model.” Int. J. Geomech. 20: 04020008. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001606.
Breiman, L. 2001. “Random forests.” Mach. Learn. 45: 5–32. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010933404324.
Cai, Y., J. Chen, Z. Cao, C. Gu, and J. Wang. 2018. “Influence of grain gradation on permanent strain of unbound granular materials under low confining pressure and high-cycle loading.” Int. J. Geomech. 18: 04017156. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001054.
Cerni, G., F. Cardone, and M. Bocci. 2012. “Permanent deformation behaviour of unbound recycled mixtures.” Constr. Build. Mater. 37: 573–580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.07.062.
Chen, C., L. Ge, and J. Zhang. 2010. “Modeling permanent deformation of unbound granular materials under repeated loads.” Int. J. Geomech. 10: 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000025.
Chen, Q., M. Abu-Farsakh, G. Z. Voyiadjis, and G. Souci. 2013. “Shakedown analysis of geogrid-reinforced granular base material.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25: 337–346. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000601.
Debnath, P., and A. K. Dey. 2018. “Prediction of bearing capacity of geogrid-reinforced stone columns using support vector regression.” Int. J. Geomech. 18: 04017147. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001067.
Erlingsson, S., S. Rahman, and F. Salour. 2017. “Characteristic of unbound granular materials and subgrades based on multi stage RLT testing.” Transp. Geotech. 13: 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2017.08.009.
Gabr, A. R., and D. A. Cameron. 2012. “Properties of recycled concrete aggregate for unbound pavement construction.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 24: 754–764. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000447.
Ghisellini, P., M. Ripa, and S. Ulgiati. 2018. “Exploring environmental and economic costs and benefits of a circular economy approach to the construction and demolition sector. A literature review.” J. Cleaner Prod. 178: 618–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.207.
Ghorbani, B., A. Arulrajah, G. Narsilio, S. Horpibulsuk, and M. Win Bo. 2021a. “Thermal and mechanical properties of demolition wastes in geothermal pavements by experimental and machine learning techniques.” Constr. Build. Mater. 280: 122499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122499.
Ghorbani, B., A. Arulrajah, G. Narsilio, and S. Horpibulsuk. 2020a. “Experimental and ANN analysis of temperature effects on the permanent deformation properties of demolition wastes.” Transp. Geotech. 24: 100365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100365.
Ghorbani, B., A. Arulrajah, G. Narsilio, and S. Horpibulsuk. 2020b. “Experimental investigation and modelling the deformation properties of demolition wastes subjected to freeze–thaw cycles using ANN and SVR.” Constr. Build. Mater. 258: 119688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119688.
Ghorbani, B., A. Arulrajah, G. Narsilio, S. Horpibulsuk, and M. W. Bo. 2021b. “Dynamic characterization of recycled glass-recycled concrete blends using experimental analysis and artificial neural network modeling.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 142: 106544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106544.
Ghorbani, B., A. Arulrajah, G. Narsilio, S. Horpibulsuk, and M. Leong. 2021c. “Resilient moduli of demolition wastes in geothermal pavements: Experimental testing and ANFIS modelling.” Transp. Geotech. 29: 100592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2021.100592.
Gu, F., Y. Zhang, X. Luo, H. Sahin, and R. L. Lytton. 2017. “Characterization and prediction of permanent deformation properties of unbound granular materials for pavement ME design.” Constr. Build. Mater. 155: 584–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.08.116.
Hicks, R. G. 1970. Factors influencing the resilient properties of granular materials. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California.
Ho, T. K. 1995. “Random decision forests.” In Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Document Analysis and Recognition, 278–282. New York: IEEE.
Huang, Y. H. 2004. In Vol. 2 of Pavement analysis and design, 401–409. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hoyos, L. R., A. J. Puppala, and C. A. Ordonez. 2011. “Characterization of cement-fiber-treated reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregates: Preliminary investigation.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 23: 977–989. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000267.
Hu, X., and P. Solanki. 2021. “Predicting resilient modulus of cementitiously stabilized subgrade soils using neural network, support vector machine, and Gaussian process regression.” Int. J. Geomech. 21: 04021073. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0002029.
Jitsangiam, P., K. Boonserm, T. Phenrat, S. Chummuneerat, P. Chindaprasirt, and H. Nikraz. 2015. “Recycled concrete aggregates in roadways: Laboratory examination of self-cementing characteristics.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 27: 04014270. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001245.
Kordjazi, A., F. P. Nejad, and M. B. Jaksa. 2014. “Prediction of ultimate axial load-carrying capacity of piles using a support vector machine based on CPT data.” Comput. Geotech. 55: 91–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2013.08.001.
Mousa, E., S. El-Badawy, and A. Azam. 2021. “Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt pavement as base/subbase material in Egypt.” Transp. Geotech. 26: 100414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100414.
Poon, C. S., and D. Chan. 2006. “Feasible use of recycled concrete aggregates and crushed clay brick as unbound road sub-base.” Constr. Build. Mater. 20: 578–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.01.045.
Poon, C.-S., X. C. Qiao, and D. Chan. 2006. “The cause and influence of self-cementing properties of fine recycled concrete aggregates on the properties of unbound sub-base.” Waste Manage. (Oxford) 26: 1166–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2005.12.013.
Puppala, A. J., L. R. Hoyos, and A. K. Potturi. 2011. “Resilient moduli response of moderately cement-treated reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregates.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 23: 990–998. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000268.
Qi, Y., B. Indraratna, A. Heitor, and J. S. Vinod. 2018. “Effect of rubber crumbs on the cyclic behavior of steel furnace slag and coal wash mixtures.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 144: 04017107. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001827.
Shahin, M. A., H. R. Maier, and M. B. Jaksa. 2004. “Data division for developing neural networks applied to geotechnical engineering.” J. Comput. Civ. Eng. 18: 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3801(2004)18:2(105).
Sharp, R. 1983. “Shakedown-analyses and the design of pavement under moving surface load.” Ph.D. thesis, School of Civil and Mining Engineering, Univ. of Sydney.
Sharp, R. W., and J. R. Booker. 1984. “Shakedown of pavements under moving surface loads.” J. Transp. Eng. 110: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947X(1984)110:1(1).
Soleimanbeigi, A., and W. Likos. 2019. “Mechanical properties of recycled concrete aggregate and recycled asphalt pavement reinforced with geosynthetics.” In Proc., Geo-Congress 2019: Earth Retaining Structures and Geosynthetics, Geotechnical Special Publication 306, edited by C. L. Meehan, S. Kumar, M. A. Pando, and J. T. Coe, 284–292. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Soliman, H., and A. Shalaby. 2015. “Permanent deformation behavior of unbound granular base materials with varying moisture and fines content.” Transp. Geotech. 4: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2015.06.001.
Taha, R. 2003. “Evaluation of cement kiln dust-stabilized reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregate systems in road bases.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1819: 11–17. https://doi.org/10.3141/1819b-02.
Tao, M., L. N. Mohammad, M. D. Nazzal, Z. Zhang, and Z. Wu. 2010. “Application of shakedown theory in characterizing traditional and recycled pavement base materials.” J. Transp. Eng. 136: 214–222. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947X(2010)136:3(214).
Uzan, J. 1985. “Characterization of granular material.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1022: 52–59.
Vapnik, V. 1995. The nature of statistical learning theory. New York: Springer.
Vapnik, V., S. E. Golowich, and A. J. Smola. 1997. “Support vector method for function approximation, regression estimation and signal processing.” In Advances in neural information processing systems, edited by M. I. Jordan, M. J. Kearns, and S. A. Solla, 281–287. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Vieira, C. S., and P. M. Pereira. 2015. “Use of recycled construction and demolition materials in geotechnical applications: A review.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 103: 192–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.07.023.
Werkmeister, S. 2003. “Permanent deformation behaviour of unbound granular materials in pavement constructions.” Ph.D. thesis, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dresden Univ. of Technology.
Yaghoubi, E., N. Sudarsanan, and A. Arulrajah. 2021. “Stress-strain response analysis of demolition wastes as aggregate base course of pavements.” Transp. Geotech. 30: 100599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2021.100599.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
International Journal of Geomechanics
Volume 23 • Issue 6 • June 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Sep 6, 2021
Accepted: Sep 18, 2022
Published online: Mar 21, 2023
Published in print: Jun 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Aug 21, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Xin Wang, Shuangbao Li, Shouzhong Feng, Wei Guo, Yuxiao Ren, Model Tests of Recycled Aggregate Use in Rammed Stone Columns, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-18271, 36, 12, (2024).