Index for Surveying and Geomatics Engineering: Principles, Technologies, and Applications

absolute positioning

. See single-point GPS

acceptance

490. See also contract

adaptive Kalman filter (AKF)

325

adjustment's degrees of freedom

136. See also observational errors

aerial laser scanning (ALS)

353

advantages and limitations of

372–373

bare-earth digital elevation model

370f

bathymetric lidar systems

358

beam divergence

362

calibration

365

categories

358

commercial lidar systems

359

contour map of Tellulah, Georgia

370f

conventional bathymetric lidar system

358f

data processing

366–367

data products

367–372

dead zones

360

-derived digital surface model

370f

discrete-return ranging systems

361

error budget

372

filtering and terrain modeling

368

flash lidar

361

geodetic grade

364

GNSS receiver

355

intensity

371–372

laser scanner characteristics

362–363

lidar ranging modalities

360f

“linear mode” systems

361

multiple-time-around processing

363

onfiltered point cloud and filtered point cloud

369f

operational aspects of

364–372

penetration depth

359

performance

372–373

phase-based ranging

361

point cloud

367–368, 371f

position and orientation determination

355–357

principles

354–357

project planning and execution

364–365

properties of

357–363

quality control and accuracy

365–366

range determination from laser to target

354f

ranging modalities

359–361

raster color coded by point density

363f

3D point cloud data

367f

topographic and bathymetric aerial laser scanners

358–359

topographic lidar over beach

356f

topographic lidar systems

358. See also aerial surveying technology

terrestrial laser scanning

aerial mapping with unmanned aircraft systems

376

aerial GCP targets

383f

flight apps

377

flight design

377–382

geometry for ground control network

384f

grid image acquisition plan

381f

ground control

382–384

ground sample distance and flying height

379f

ground sample distance and overlap

379–382

image mosaic

376

Mission Planner

377

mission planning

376–377, 378f

orthomosaics

376

Pix4Dmapper

380

rolling and global shutter cameras

382

UAS flight design with parallel transects

378f

UAS photogrammetric measurements

384. See also unmanned aircraft systems

aerial photogrammetry

341

aerial photographs

345

analytical photogrammetry

347–352

cameras

342–345

in late 1800s

341

modulation transfer function

345

parallactic angle

346

parallax

346

principles of

345–347

products of

341

project planning

352–353

relief displacement

345, 346f

stereopairs

346

stereo photography

346

stereoscopic parallax

347

topographic maps

341. See also aerial surveying technology

aerial photographs

345

aerial surveying technology

341

aerial laser scanning

353

aerial photogrammetry

341

unmanned aircraft systems

373

aerial triangulation (AT)

385

airborne laser scanning (ALS)

248, 470. See also aerial laser scanning

airborne lidar

. See aerial laser scanning

almanacs

161

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

467

analytical photogrammetry

347

analytical stereomodel

349–350

collinearity condition

347, 349f

digital elevation models

351–352

epipolar resampling

351

least-squares estimation

347

orthophotos

352

parallax measurements for eyes

348f

softcopy stereoplotter

350, 351f

stereo photography

348f

stereoplotters

350–351. See also aerial photogrammetry

angular distortion

37–39

angular field of view (AFOV)

342. See also cameras

anticalibration

94. See also equation-based transformations

antilocalization

94. See also equation-based transformations

arbitrary coordinate system

80f

architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC)

452

area leveling

202–203. See also leveling

area of interest (AOI)

472

artificial intelligence (AI)

456

as-built or as-constructed survey

426. See also construction surveys

as-built surveys

435. See also construction surveys

augmented reality (AR)

455

in building construction

459f. See also information systems in civil engineering

Australian Surveying and Land Information Group (AUSLIG)

176

automatic level

186f, 190f. See also leveling

bare-earth digital elevation model

370f

bathymetric lidar systems

358. See also aerial laser scanning

beam divergence

362

BeiDou-1

181

BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)

157, 181. See also Global Navigation Satellite System

bench marks (BMs)

205

biases

. See systematic errors

Binary Large Objects (BLOBs)

470

Bluebooking

413

boundary representation (B-Rep)

463

boundary surveying

3. See also engineering surveying

breach of contract

494. See also design professionals’ contracts

bridge information modeling (BrIM)

480

building information modeling (BIM)

2, 451, 452–454

AR in building construction

459f

as-is BIM reconstruction of precast panel

483f

automated progress tracking using 4D BIM and lidar

482f

-based bridge inspection framework

480f

based coordination process

452–453, 453f

bridge information management in Autodesk BIM 360 Glue

481f

building in virtual reality

459, 460f

computing hardware and software

455–456

converting point clouds into building information models

482–483

coordinate systems in

454–455

design coordination

452

evolution of BIM-based coordination

453f

example BIM applications

479

IFC

461

immersive methods

458t

immersive visualization technologies

457–459

for infrastructure projects

479–481

key data types for

461–464

levels of development in IFC

464t

and light detection and ranging for progress monitoring

482

parametric objects

452

plain text contents of IFC-SPF file

463f

from point clouds to models

456

procedure for integrating bridge inspection data

481f

process of Scan-to-BIM

484f

for Ramp B developed using OpenBridge Modeler

479f

releases of IFC versions

462

representation of 3D geometry in IFC

464f

scan-to-building information modeling

482–483

technologies

455–459

3D building models

456, 458f

3D object representation in IFC

463

TLS, UAS, and merged point clouds

456, 457f

traditional coordination using light tables

453f

types of IFC format

463

UAS photogrammetric and TLS point clouds

456, 457f. See also information systems in civil engineering

bundle adjustment (BA)

385

C/A code

160, 161–162. See also global positioning system signals

calibrated baseline (CBL)

228

calibrated focal length

344. See also cameras

calibration/localization

98

for GNSS-derived local coordinates

93–96. See also equation-based transformations

cameras

342

analytical self-calibration

344–345

angular field of view

342

calibrated focal length

344

calibration parameters

344t

color photography

343

components

342

decentering distortion coefficients

344

distortion and calibration

344

focal length

342

f-stop

342

hyperspectral cameras

343

Leica DMC III airborne digital camera

343f

lenses

342

metric cameras

344

multispectral cameras

343

panchromatic photography

343

pinhole camera

342

principal distance

344

principal point coordinates

344

remote sensing

343

symmetric radial lens distortion coefficients

344. See also aerial photogrammetry

capacity

491. See also contract

catch point

433. See also construction surveys

cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE)

457

Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services (CO-OPS)

120

central processing unit (CPU)

455

central tendency

137. See also observational errors

change point (CP)

198

China Geodetic Coordinate System 2000 (CGCS2000)

181

civil information modeling (CiM)

480

civil integrated management (CIM)

480

clock corrections

161

CloudCompare

284

cloud-to-cloud surface matching

262

limitations of

262–264

sampling of cloud-to-cloud registration techniques

263t. See also registration

cloud-to-cloud technique

267. See also registration

CNAV

161. See also global positioning system signals

collinearity condition

347. See also analytical photogrammetry

color filter array (CFA)

343

color photography

343. See also cameras

combined equation-and grid-based transformations

120, 122–130

estimated orthometric height change from NAVD 88 to NAPGD2022, 129f

height change from IGS08 epoch 2005. 0 to NAD 83 epoch 2010. 0, 127f

horizontal shift & error of “WGS 84” to NAD 83 (2011) transformation

125f

horizontal velocities in CA and NV with respect to NAD 83 (2011)

126f

unequal epoch datum transformations

128f

velocity grids in HTDP

123f. See also coordinate transformations

Commercial Service (CS)

181

computer-aided design and drafting (CADD or CAD)

452

confidence interval for population mean

139. See also observational errors

conformal map projections

32, 33t, 86

parameters for large-scale

36t

consent

491. See also contract

consideration

490–491. See also contract

construction control marks

427. See also construction surveys

construction staking

426, 432–433

equipment

429–432

and layout

431

and markings

432f. See also construction surveys

construction surveys

425

as-built surveys

426, 435

as-constructed survey

426

catch point

433

after construction

426–427

during construction

426

construction control marks

427

data collector

429

earthwork computations

434–435

equipment

429–430

field notes

430–431

grade stakes

433

horizontal and construction surveys (cont.)vertical control network

426, 427

machine guidance and control

435–439

preconstruction phase

425–426

purpose of

425

reference stakes

433

referencing/witnessing a point

433

right-of-way markers and property boundary monuments

434

site layout stakes

434

slope stakes

433

structure stakes

434

task sequence

429–434

vertical control

428

constructive solid geometry (CSG)

463

conterminous United States (CONUS)

20, 45

Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS)

23, 112, 393

contour map of Tellulah, Georgia

370f

contract

489

acceptance

490

capacity

491

consent

491

consideration

490–491

duress

491

fraud

491

legality

492

misrepresentation

491

offer

490

sound mind

491

writing

492. See also professional services and design professionals’ agreements

control polyline

315

conventional survey

233–234

coordinate

29

coordinate reference system (CRS)

29, 81, 258

georeferenced

29, 30

spatial reference systems

30. See also low-distortion projection coordinate systems

map projections

nonprojected local coordinate systems

projected coordinate system

registration

coordinate transformations

85, 130

combined equation-and grid-based

120, 122–130

equation-based

85, 86

grid-based

86, 108

projective transformation

89

types of

85

core leveling procedures

188

automatic level

190f

base leveling

193, 195f, 201–203

elevation difference measurements

194f

flight of levels

196

general leveling

193, 196

grid leveling

200–201, 201f

height of collimation method

196–198, 197f

intermediate sights

193

reading the rod

190, 191f

recording methods

196–201

rise and fall method

198–200

setting up the level

188–190

side shots

193

two-peg test

191–193, 192f. See also leveling

cost-effective immersive technologies

457

data:

collectors

210, 429

completeness

271

snooping

153. See also construction surveys

observational errors

registration

total stations

data controller

. See data—collectors

database

465

inside and outside joins

468f

ANSI codes in US county subdivision data set

468f

fields and data types

469–470, 471f

geographic database

465–467

ID fields

467

joins

467

query languages

469

relate

469

spatial joins

469

SQL

469f. See also information systems in civil engineering

database management system (DBMS)

465

categories in GISs

466–467

datums

8–9, 21

horizontal

21–25

modernized NSRS

26–27

plane survey

21

reference frames

22

tag

22

transformations

99

vertical

25–26. See also geodesy and geodetic computations

dead zones

360. See also aerial laser scanning

decentering distortion coefficients

344. See also cameras

deflection of the vertical (DoV)

77

degrees of freedom, adjustment's

136. See also observational errors

density filters

273–274. See also terrestrial laser scanning

Department of Transportations (DOT)

480

dependent lines

169. See also global positioning system survey planning

design professional

489

design professionals’ contracts

489, 492

areas to cover in

500–502

breach of contract

494

certifications, guarantees, and warranties

493

design professional designations

492

employment agreement

502

between engineer and subconsultant

503

examples of

502

hold harmless clause

500

incorporation by reference of another contract

493

indemnity

495–498

indemnity obligation

494

liability to owners

496

licensed land surveyor

492

ownership and use of design professional's work

498–499

prime agreement

493

scope of work

500

standard of care in negligence

494–495

“third-party beneficiaries” provision

496. See also professional services and design professionals’ agreements

DI-1001 EDM unit

210f. See also total stations

differential GPS (DGPS)

163, 166

correlation of biases

166

postprocessing

166

relative positioning

166

single-point GPS

165

solutions

163, 165, 165f

differential leveling

185. See also leveling

digital elevation model (DEM)

341, 351–352, 426, 451. See also analytical photogrammetry

digital level and barcode rod

186f. See also leveling instruments and equipment

digital surface models (DSMs)

351

digital terrain models (DTMs)

274, 276f, 351. See also terrestrial laser scanning

direct georeferencing

258. See also registration

discrete-return ranging systems

361. See also aerial laser scanning

distance measurement instrument (DMI)

303

distances:

measuring

224–225

reducing

225–226. See also total stations

distortion

43

ap projection distortion reduction

61–65

diurnal tide level (DTL)

120

Doppler orbitography and radiopositioning integrated by satellite (DORIS)

102

double-run leveling

208. See also leveling

duress

491. See also contract

dynamic correction

206f, 207. See also leveling

dynamic height

18

Earth-centered Earth-fixed (ECEF)

12, 313

earthwork computations

434–435. See also construction surveys

8-parameter projective transformation

89. See also equation-based transformations

electromagnetic (EM)

343

electronic distance measurement (EDM)

142, 209

calibration

228–229. See also total stations

electronic field book

. See data—collectors

electronic tacheometers

. See total stations

ellipsoid height

14, 18

ellipsoid of revolution

9

ELTA 14 (ELectronic TAcheometer)

209

engineering surveying

1

asset management process life cycle

3f

boundary surveying

3

geomatics and geospatial engineering

1–2

professional licensing and certification

3–4

surveying engineer

1, 2–3

technology for practicing surveying engineers

2

Engineers Joint Contract Documents Committee (EJCDC)

489, 502

ephemeris

161. See also global positioning system signals

equation-based transformations

85, 86

anticalibration or antilocalization

94

calibration/localization

93–96, 98

disadvantages with calibrations

98–99

8-parameter projective transformation

89

error of planar transformation

95f

estimated error of GEOID18 model

91f

4-parameter 2D transformation

88

GEOID18 slope magnitude

97f

geopotential datum

98

global equation–based coordinate transformations

99–102

GNSS positioning

93

horizontal and 3D transformations

86–89

horizontal calibration/localization

93–96

horizontal similarity coordinate transformation about origin

87f

International Terrestrial Reference System

102–105

limitations

108

local horizontal and vertical transformations

86–93

relationship among orthometric, ellipsoid, and geoid heights

90f

7-parameter similarity transformations

89

three frames of the North American Datum of 1983

106–108

2D and 3D equation-based transformations

130

vertical calibration/localization

96–98

vertical transformations

89

World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84)

105–106. See also coordinate transformations

error propagation

142

covariance matrix for observations

143

equations

143

example

144

GLOPOV

143

SLOPOV

143

in traverse computations

142f. See also observational errors

errors in leveling

203

refraction

204

rod

205

sources of

204f. See also leveling

error sources

162

ionospheric effect

162

multipath

163, 164f

orbital bias

162

range biases

162

receiver clock bias

162

receiver noise

163

satellite clock bias

162

tropospheric effect

163. See also satellite-based surveying technology

error trapping

230. See also total stations

European Petroleum Survey Group (EPSG)

102

European Union (EU)

157, 180

experimental geoid (xGEOID)

20

extended Kalman filter (EKF)

325

exterior orientation (EO)

385

exterior orientation parameters (EOPs)

350

Factored Solution to SLAM (FastSLAM)

326

FastSLAM

326. See also indoor mobile mapping technology

F distribution

140. See also observational errors

feature extraction

278

algorithms for

278

example segmentation result

278f

examples of transportation

279

point-cloud segmentation

278

point cloud to finite-element models

279, 283

sampling of common point-cloud segmentation approaches

280t–282t

segmentation and classification procedures

279. See also terrestrial laser scanning

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

374

Federal Base Networks (FBNs)

112

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

175–176

Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (FGCS)

412

Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)

203

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)

479

Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS)

467

field notes

430–431. See also construction surveys

fields and data types

469

in Esri ArcGIS Pro

471f

field data types

470

integer and real number data types

470t. See also database

filtering

272–273. See also terrestrial laser scanning

flash lidar

361. See also aerial laser scanning

flight apps

377. See also aerial mapping with unmanned aircraft systems

focal length

342. See also cameras

focal operators

474. See also spatial operators and geoprocessing tools

foot rod

189f. See also leveling instruments and equipment

forward error correction (FEC)

161

4-parameter 2D transformation

88. See also equation-based transformations

fraud

491. See also contract

f-stop

342. See also cameras

F-test

422

Full Operational Capability (FOC)

178, 181

Galileo system

180–181. See also Global Navigation Satellite System

Gauss mean radius of curvature

12

Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GmAPD)

361

General Law of the Propagation of Variances (GLOPOV)

143

geodesy

7–9

ellipsoid of revolution

9

Gauss mean radius of curvature

12

geometrical elements of

9–12

oblate ellipsoids

9

radius of curvature in meridian

11

radius of curvature in prime vertical

11–12

reference ellipsoids

9, 10t

two-dimensional ellipse

11

two-dimensional meridian section of ellipsoid

11f. See also geodesy and geodetic computations

geodesy and geodetic computations

7

datums

21–27

geodetic and geocentric coordinate systems

13f

geodetic coordinate systems

12–14

geodetic forward and geodetic inverse computations

16f

geodetic forward and inverse computations

16–17

geodetic surveys

8

geometrical elements of geodesy

9–12

history of geodesy

7–9

measurements and datums

8–9

models used in geometrical geodesy

15

NSRS

8

physical geodesy

17–20

shape of Earth

7–8

spatial and geospatial data

7

“Survey of the Coast”

8

geodetic and geocentric coordinate systems

13f

geodetic azimuth from point A to B

39

geodetic control

395

active control

396–402

IGS14

396

map of NOAA CORS network

397f

NGS datasheet for passive mark

406f

NOAA CORS network

396–401

OPUS-NET

398

passive control

402–406

passive marks

402f

real-time network

401–402

SCIGN mount device

400f

screen capture of NGS Data Explorer

405f

short-term time-series plot for monitoring station “ECHO”, 399f

stability

402

station “ECHO”, 400f

survey mark recovery tool provides

407f. See also survey control

geodetic coordinate system

12, 258, 395

characteristics

13

ellipsoid height

14

geocentric and

13f

geodetic longitude

14. See also geodesy and geodetic computations

registration

survey control

geodetic forward and inverse computations

16–17. See also geodesy and geodetic computations

geodetic grade

364. See also aerial laser scanning

geodetic longitude

14

Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS 80)

10, 23

geodetic surveys

8

geographic coordinate system

454. See also geographic information system

geographic database

465

accessing and storing information

465

categories of DBMS in GISs

466–467

data preparation for GISs

465f

maps generated from

466f

table joined to state geographic features

466f. See also database

geographic information system (GIS)

2, 341, 451

accessing and storing information

465

applications and analyses

478–479

augmented reality in building construction

459f

buffer tool for analysis in

473f

building in virtual reality

459, 460f

computing hardware and software

455–456

coordinate systems in

454–455

databases in

465–467

data preparation for

465f

data types used in

461f

DBMS in

466–467

geographic coordinate system

454

geoprocessing tools in

472f

georeferencing

455

immersive methods

458t

immersive visualization technologies

457–459

informational basemaps

460

key data types for

459–461

land-use and land-cover data represented

462f

mapping capabilities of modern GIS software

478

maps

451, 466f

pixels

459

from point clouds to models

456

raster data

459, 460

raster vs. vector data

461

slope calculation

454

table joined to state geographic features

466f

technologies

455–459

3D building models

456, 458f

TLS, UAS, and merged point clouds

456, 457f

UAS photogrammetric and TLS point clouds

456, 457f

vector data

461. See also information systems in civil engineering

geoid

17

height

18

undulation

89

geomatics engineering

1–2. See also engineering surveying

geometrical geodesy

15. See also geodesy and geodetic computations

geometric control

394. See also survey control

geometric coordinate transformations

109. NADCON

geometric modeling

276–277

generated of Kearney Hall Atrium

277f. See also terrestrial laser scanning

geopotential datum

98. See also equation-based transformations

geopotential number

18

georeferencing

312, 455

error sources in

316–318

geometric corrections

314–316

quality control

318. See also geographic information system

mobile terrestrial laser scanning and mapping

geospatial data

7. See also geodesy and geodetic computations

geospatial engineering

1–2. See also engineering surveying

Geospatial Information and Services (GI&S)

2

geospatial intelligence (GEOINT)

2

geostationary (GEO)

181

global equation–based coordinate transformations

99

among commonly used reference frames

101–102

Helmert transformations

99–101. See also equation-based transformations

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

2, 13, 29, 86, 89, 140, 157, 180, 185, 353, 394, 428

BeiDou Navigation Satellite System

181

control surveying guidelines

412–413

Galileo system

180–181

Globalnaya Navigationnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema

180

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System

182

online tools for

419, 421

positioning

93

Quazi-Zenith Satellite System

182. See also equation-based transformations

satellite-based surveying technology

survey control

global navigation satellite system surveying techniques

174

precise point positioning

176–178

real-time kinematic

174–176, 175f

real-time networks

176, 177f

static

174. See also satellite-based surveying technology

Globalnaya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS)

157, 180. See also Global Navigation Satellite System

Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)

180

global positioning system (GPS)

157

constellation

158f

control segment

158, 159f

GPS Bench Marks

118

GPSVan

303

modernization

178, 179f

satellite blocks

178, 180

space segment

157

user segment

160

work

163. See also satellite-based surveying technology

global positioning system signals

160

C/A code

160, 161–162

CNAV

161

codes

160

ephemeris

161

NAV messages

161

P(Y) code

160, 161

pseudorandom noise codes

161

wavelength and frequency

160. See also satellite-based surveying technology

global positioning system survey planning

166

dependent lines

169

GPS satellite azimuth and elevation table

167, 168f, 170f

high dilution of precision and weak geometry

167, 169f

independent and trivial vectors

171f

independent lines

169–171

low dilution of precision and strong geometry

167, 169f

nontrivial lines

169

observation logs

172, 173f

redundancy

171

station data sheet

171–172, 172f. See also satellite-based surveying technology

global spatial data model (GSDM)

15

GNSS Vector Exchange (GVX)

419

goodness-of-fit test

152. See also observational errors

GPS Bench Marks (GPSBMs)

118

GPS satellite blocks

178

L1C

180

L2C

178

L5

178, 180. See also satellite-based surveying technology

GPSVan

303. See also mobile terrestrial laser scanning and mapping

grade stakes

433. See also construction surveys

graphics processing unit (GPU)

456

graphic survey records

445

field notes

446

maps and drawings

446–447. See also survey records

gravimetric geoid models

118

gravimetric geoid model of entire Earth

119

hybrid geoid model GEOID18 for CONUS

119f

NGS geoid models

118

NGS hybrid geoid model

118. See also grid-based coordinate transformations

Gravity for the Redefinition of the American Vertical Datum (GRAV-D)

20

grid-based coordinate transformations

86, 108

IGLD 85 hydraulic correctors

120, 121f

NADCON

109–118

national geodetic survey hybrid and gravimetric geoid models

118–119

NCAT

109

NGS Coordinate Conversion and Transformation Tool

109

types of

109

VDatum

119–120. See also coordinate transformations

grid leveling

200–201, 201f. See also leveling

grid vs. ground problem

58

accuracies of ground and ellipsoid distance calculation methods

60t

ground distance

58–59

ground distance calculation methods

59–60

low-distortion projection coordinate systems

65–74

map projection distortion reduction

61–65. See also map projections

universal grids

ground control

382

aerial GCP targets

383f

geometry for

384f

UAS photogrammetric measurements

384. See also aerial mapping with unmanned aircraft systems

ground control points (GCPs)

350, 376, 382

ground distance

58

calculation methods

59–60, 60t

horizontal

58–59. See also grid vs. ground problem

ground filtering

274–275. See also terrestrial laser scanning

ground sample distance (GSD)

345

head-mounted displays (HMDs)

457

heat ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

452

height of collimation method

196–198, 197f. See also leveling

Helmert transformations

99

Bursa–Wolf transformation

100

coordinate frame convention

101

equations

101

parameters

101

position vector convention

101

and reference ellipsoids

100f

“solid body” transformation

99. See also global equation–based coordinate transformations

high accuracy reference networks (HARNs)

22, 111

high precision geodetic networks (HPGNs)

22, 111

high-resolution hybrid geoid model

96

hillshades

477f

hold harmless clause

500. See also design professionals’ contracts

horizontal and 3D transformations

86–89. See also equation-based transformations

horizontal angles:

measuring

218–219

recording

220t

reducing

219–220. See also total stations

horizontal calibration/localization

93–96. See also equation-based transformations

horizontal control

394, 426, 427. See also construction surveys

survey control

horizontal ground distance

58–59. See also ground distance

Horizontal Time-Dependent Positioning (HTDP)

85, 106, 120

velocity grids in HTDP

123f

hybrid geoid modeling

19

hyperspectral cameras

343. See also cameras

identifier (ID)

467

ID fields

467

ANSI codes in US county subdivision data set

468f. See also database

image mosaic

376

immersive visualization technologies

455, 457–459, 458t. See also information systems in civil engineering

inclined geosynchronous orbit (IGSO)

181

indemnity:

duty to defend

495

joint and several liability

496–497

liability to owners

496

limit indemnitees

496

limits on liability to policy limits

497–498

obligation

494. See also design professionals’ contracts

independent lines

169–171. See also global positioning system survey planning

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (NAVIC aka IRNSS)

157, 180, 182. See also Global Navigation Satellite System

indoor mobile lidar data

327f. See also indoor mobile mapping technology

indoor mobile mapping technology

322

commercial mobile mapping systems

328f

data association

326

data collected with continuous scanning approach

325f

FastSLAM

326

graph-based SLAM

326

indoor mobile indoor mobile mapping technology (cont.)lidar data

327f

indoor mobile mapping systems

327–329

internal sensors

323

lidar-based SLAM

324

localization

322

monocular SLAM

324

scans collected with stop-and-go mobile scanning approach

324f

sensors for

323–324

sigma points

325

SLAM

322–323

SLAM algorithms

324–326

stereo vision SLAM

324

3D data of total station collected by iPhone lidar sensor

328f

vision-based SLAM

324. See also mobile terrestrial laser scanning and mapping

industry foundation classes (IFC)

461

development in

464t

formats

463

releases of

462

representation of 3D geometry in

464f

text contents of IFC-SPF file

463f

3D object representation in

463. See also building information modeling

inertial measurement unit (IMU)

77, 248, 307, 353, 354, 357

informational basemaps

460. See also geographic information system

information systems in civil engineering

451

as-is BIM reconstruction

483f

BIM

452–454, 479–482

common spatial operators and geoprocessing tools

470–477

converting point clouds into BIM

482–483

coordinate systems in GISs/BIMs

454

database

465–470

geographic information systems

451, 478–479

GISs/BIMs technologies

455

key data models

459–464

process of Scan-to-BIM

484f

scan-to-BIM

482–483

informed consent

489

intensity value

233

interior orientation (IO)

385

intermediate sights

193. See also leveling

internal sensors

323. See also indoor mobile mapping technology

International Earth Rotation Service (IERS)

100–101

International GNSS Service (IGS)

24, 102, 177, 396

International Great Lakes Datum of 1955 (IGLD 55)

25

International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 (IGLD 85)

119

International Standards Organization (ISO)

102

International System of Units (SI)

160

International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)

24, 102, 396

International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS)

12, 102–105

change in parameters with respect to ITRF2014 at epoch 2010. 0, 105f

ITRF transformation parameters

102, 103t–104t. See also equation-based transformations

interpolation

475

1D and 2D

475f

results and ellipsoid heights

476f

techniques

475–476. See also spatial operators and geoprocessing tools

inverse distance weighted (IDW)

368, 475

iterative closest point (ICP)

262, 326

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)

182

joins

467

inside and outside

468f

spatial

469. See also database

Kalman filter (KF) method

325

Kinematic and Rapid Static (KARS)

355

kinematic surveying

329

Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC)

32

laser plummet

216. See also total stations

layout work

231. See also total stations

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)

493

least-squares:

adjustments

141–142

estimation

347

legality

492. See also contract

leica barcode rod

189f. See also leveling instruments and equipment

Leica DMC III airborne digital camera

343f. See also cameras

Leica ScanStation II

243, 244f

Leica T2 theodolite

212f. See also total stations

Leica TCR 307 reflectorless total station

213f

linear bubbles on

218f. See also total stations

lenker rod

188

lenses

342. See also cameras

leveling

185

adjustment

208

automatic

186f

configuration

208f

core

188

differential

185

digital level and barcode rod

186f

double-run

208

dynamic and orthometric heights

206f

errors in

203–205

foot rod

189f

instruments and equipment

186

leica barcode rod

189f

levels

186–187

levels and leveling

185

line of collimation

187

metric E-pattern rod

189f

NGS

185

orthometric and dynamic corrections

205–207

refraction

204

rod bubbles

188, 190f

rods/staves

188

sokkia barcode rod

189f

sources of error in

204f

suspended prism system

186f

tripods

187–188, 187f

waving the rod

188

wye level with bubble tube below telescope

186f. See also total stations

leveling/inclination sensors

252–253. See also terrestrial laser scanning

leveling instruments and equipment

186

automatic level

186f

digital level and barcode rod

186f

foot rod

189f

leica barcode rod

189f

leveling rod bubbles

188

leveling rods/staves

188

levels

186–187

line of collimation

187

metric E-pattern rod

189f

with physical bubble tube

217f

rod bubble

190f

sokkia barcode rod

189f

suspended prism system

186f

tripods

187–188, 187f

waving the rod

188

wye level with bubble tube below telescope

186f. See also leveling

leveling rods

188. See also leveling instruments and equipment

level of confidence

152. See also observational errors

Levels of Development (LODs)

463

licensed design professional

489. See also professional services and design professionals’ agreements

licensed land surveyor

492. See also design professionals’ contracts

lidar platforms

249t

lidar systems

359

topographic

358. See also aerial laser scanning

linear distortion

39–44

of projected coordinates

43f, 44t

of secant map projection

42f

“linear mode” systems

361. See also aerial laser scanning

line leveling

202. See also leveling

line of collimation

187. See also leveling instruments and equipment

local control

395. See also survey control

local geodetic horizon (LGH) systems

74, 77–79, 85

characteristics and limitations

78–79

coordinate system at height h₀ above ellipsoid

77f

relationship between ΔU and Δh in

78f. See also nonprojected local coordinate systems

local horizontal and vertical transformations

86–93. See also equation-based transformations

local mean sea level (LMSL)

120

local positioning system (LPS)

437

low-distortion projection coordinate systems

65

adopted in United States

72–74, 74f

areas with ±20 ppm linear distortion

70f, 71f

currently used in CONUS

75t–76t

distortion performance

69t

example design area

68f

final design parameters for

69, 72

linear distortion behavior

65–66

OCRS Bend–Redmond–Prineville Zone Linear distortion and defining parameters

73f

performance example

67–69

SPCS, “modified” SPCS and LDP

66f. See also coordinate reference system

low-distortion projections (LDPs)

51, 81–82

designed by stakeholders

54

machine guidance and control

435

equipment with

438f

projects for implementing

438

surveying engineer

439

UAS photogrammetric mapping

435f. See also construction surveys

machine learning (ML)

456

Mapping Charting and Geodesy (MC&G)

2

mapping systems

329

map projections

29, 30, 81

angular distortion

37–39

conformal map projection parameters

36t

conformal map projections

32, 33t

constructed geometrically

30f

convergence angles as function of distance from central meridian

38f

developable surfaces and map projections (cont.)projection axes

31f

geodetic and grid azimuths, convergence angle, and arc-to-chord correction

38f

geodetic azimuth from point A to B

39

geometric mean radius of curvature as function of latitude

41f

linear distortion

39–44

map projection distortion

37

map projection distortion reduction

61–65

map scale

32

methods for reducing distortion

37, 61–65

nonconformal projections

32

OM-projected coordinate axes

36

projected coordinate linear distortion

43f, 44t

projected coordinate system

32, 34–37

projection axis

43

regular Mercator

32

scale error

32

secant map projection linear distortion

42f

secant, tangent, and nonintersecting map projection developable surfaces

34f

for surveying and engineering

32–34. See also coordinate reference system

grid vs. ground problem

universal grids

map projections

85

map scale

32

Master Control Station (MCS)

158

mean higher high water (MHHW)

120

mean high water (MHW)

120

mean lower low water (MLLW)

120

mean low water (MLW)

120

mean tide level (MTL)

120

measurements

8–9

standard deviation

138. See also geodesy and geodetic computations

observational errors

medium earth orbit (MEO)

181

metric cameras

344. See also cameras

metric E-pattern rod

189f. See also leveling instruments and equipment

metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs)

467

microchannel-plate photomultiplier tube (MC-PMT)

361

Military Grid Reference System (MGRS)

58

minimum mean square error (MMSE)

357

misrepresentation

491. See also contract

Mission Planner

377. See also aerial mapping with unmanned aircraft systems

mission planning

376–377, 378f. See also aerial mapping with unmanned aircraft systems

mixed reality (MR)

455

mobile laser scanning (MLS)

236, 303. See also terrestrial laser scanning

mobile lidar (ML)

303, 329

mobile mapping systems (MMSs)

303. See also mobile terrestrial laser scanning and mapping

mobile mapping technology

329

mobile terrestrial laser scanning (MTLS)

303

system acquiring data

304f

mobile terrestrial laser scanning and mapping

303

accuracy & point density requirements for mobile lidar applications

310f

applications

307–310

checklist of mobile lidar project deliverable files

323f

classified mobile lidar point clouds

319f

common steps in MTLS processing workflow

311f

components of mobile lidar unit

306f

computations/analysis

322

contribution of error sources to overall error in MTLS

313f

data acquisition

312

georeferencing

312–318

GPSVan

303

indoor mobile mapping technology

322–329

key references

303–306

kinematic surveying and mapping systems

329

mobile lidar applications in transportation

308f

MTLS system acquiring data

304f

packaging/delivery

322

planning

310–312

point cloud acquired from mobile lidar system

305f

post-processing

318–319

preliminary site surveys

312

project workflow

310–322

references for different processing applications

320t–321t

sampling of applications of mobile LiDAR data

309f

system components

306–307

modern civil engineering projects

451

modern map accuracy standards

153

discrepancies

155

map coordinates vs. surveyed check point coordinates

154t

RMSE

155. See also observational errors

modern total station

209. See also total stations

monitoring stations (MS)

158

monumentation

409. See also survey control

M-PAGES

414

multipass approach (MPA)

315

multipath

163, 164f. See also error sources

multiple regression equations (MREs)

108

multiple signal messages (MSMs)

174

multispectral cameras

343. See also cameras

Multi-View Stereo (MVS)

384

Multi-Year CORS Solution 2 (MYCS2)

398

NADCON

109

control surveys

111

-derived horizontal difference between NAD 27 and NAD 83, 110f

evolution of 2D NADCON

109–112

GPS surveys

112

HPGN horizontal shift in Oregon

111f

NADCON 5. 0, 113–117, 115f, 116f

Old Hawaiian Datum

110

3D transformation grids

112–113

2D and 3D transformations in

14f

VERTCON

117–118

VERTCON transformation

117f. See also grid-based coordinate transformations

National Geodetic Survey (NGS)

8, 37, 85, 185, 393, 428

geoid models

118

hybrid geoid model

118

NOAA's

120. See also grid-based coordinate transformations

National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29)

25, 26, 117

National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)

158

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

37, 467

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

8, 393

National Spatial Reference System (NSRS)

8, 37, 393

modernized NSRS

26–27

National Transformation version 2 (NTv2)

109

navigation solution

. See single-point GPS

near-infrared (NIR)

343, 374

networks

230. See also total stations

Next Generation Operational Control System

158

NGS Coordinate Conversion and Transformation Tool (NCAT)

109. See also grid-based coordinate transformations

NGS Integrated Database (NGSIDB)

113

nonconformal projections

32

nonprojected local coordinate systems

74

arbitrary coordinate system

80f

ΔU and Δh in local geodetic horizon coordinate systems

78f

LGH characteristics and limitations

78–79

LGH coordinate system at height h₀ above ellipsoid

77f

local geodetic horizon systems

74, 77–79

local tangent planes

77

nongeoreferenced local coordinate systems

79–81. See also coordinate reference system

nontrivial lines

169. See also global positioning system survey planning

North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27)

22, 44

North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83)

19, 23, 44, 90, 106

Helmert transformation limitations and equation-based methods

107–108

Molodensky–Badekas transformation

108

transformation parameters

103t–104t, 106. See also equation-based transformations

North American-Pacific Geopotential Datum of 2022 (NAPGD2022)

21, 118

North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88)

19, 25, 26, 90, 117, 205, 444

NOS NGS-58 and 59

412–413. See also survey control

numeric survey records

443

adjusted data

445

bearings and coordinates

444

data source

443–444

project computations

445

raw field data

444–445. See also survey records

oblate ellipsoids

9

Oblique Mercator (OM)

32

observational errors

135, 155–156

adjustment's degrees of freedom

136

angular horizon closure at station

136f

for an individual observation

137

Chi-square distribution showing 1 − α confidence interval

139f

confidence interval for population mean

139

data snooping

153

error propagation

142–144

examples

138, 144, 145–146, 147

F distribution

140

goodness-of-fit test

152

least-squares adjustments

141–142

level of confidence

152

measurement's standard deviation

138

measures of central tendency

137

population vs. sample

137–141

blunder detection

152–153

postadjustment statistics

149–151

preparing data for adjustment

148–149

random errors

136

repeat or redundant observations

135

sample variance

137

simple closed traverse with angular blunder

148f

standard deviation

137, 139

standard error

137

standardized residuals

153

statistical methods for map accuracy

153–155

statistics

137

systematic errors

136

true value

137

types of errors

135–136

variance

137

weights

144–148

observation logs

172, 173f. See also global positioning system survey planning

occlusions

254f. See also registration

offer

490. See also contract

Office of Coast Survey (OCS)

120

OM-projected coordinate axes

36

Online Positioning User Service (OPUS)

128, 393

Online Positioning User Service-projects

415, 417–419

design curves for

418f

newest version of

419

RTK GNSS vectors to

420f. See also survey control

Online Positioning User Service-Rapid Static (OPUS-RS)

414–415

accuracy of OPUS-S and

414f

interactive map of accuracy and availability of

416f. See also survey control

Online Positioning User Service-Static (OPUS-S)

413–414

and OPUS-RS

414f. See also survey control

on-the-fly (OTF)

454

Open Laser Scanning Forum (Open LSEF)

319

Open Service (OS)

181

optical plummet

215–216. See also total stations

orbital bias

162. See also error sources

Oregon Coordinate Reference System (OCRS)

67

orientation

212. See also total stations

orthometric correction

206–207, 206f. See also leveling

orthometric height

18, 19, 20f

orthomosaics

376

orthophotos

352. See also analytical photogrammetry

ownership and design professional's work

498

changes in work product

499

use of work product

498–499. See also design professionals’ contracts

P(Y) code

160, 161. See also global positioning system signals

panchromatic photography

343. See also cameras

parallactic angle

346. See also aerial photogrammetry

parallax

346. See also aerial photogrammetry

parametric objects

452. See also building information modeling

partial water vapor pressure

225. See also total stations

particle filter (PF)

325

parts per million (ppm)

32

pattern targets

260. See also target-based registration

penetration depth

359. See also aerial laser scanning

permanent identifiers (PID)

207

photogrammetric products

341

photogrammetry

341–342

physical geodesy

17

dynamic height

18

ellipsoid height

18

feasibility of GEOID2022

20

geoid

17

geoid height

18

geometric measurements

18

geopotential number

18

geopotential surface

17

hybrid geoid modeling

19

impact on engineering projects

19

orthometric height

18, 19, 20f. See also geodesy and geodetic computations

pinhole camera

342. See also cameras

Pix4Dmapper (Pix4D)

380

pixels

459

point cloud

367–368, 376, 386

nadir view of ALS

371f

onfiltered point cloud and filtered

369f

registration techniques and approaches

265t–266t

3D point cloud data

367f

of urban scene

234f. See also aerial laser scanning

registration

structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry

terrestrial laser scanning

Point Cloud Library (PCL)

279

point codes

227–228. See also total stations

point density evaluations

270–271. See also registration

point identifier (PID)

404

point leveling

201–202. See also leveling

position dilution of precision (PDOP)

167

positioning, absolute

. See single-point GPS

positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT)

160, 163

postadjustment blunder detection

152–153. See also observational errors

postadjustment statistics

149

adjustment's reference variance

149

cofactor matrix

150

error ellipse components

150–151, 150f

95% error ellipse semiaxes

151

multiplier to obtain error ellipse at a (1 − α)%

151

radial error of a point

151

standard deviation of unit weight

149

standard deviations for unknowns

149–150

standard error ellipse

151. See also observational errors

postseismic motion

122

precise point positioning (PPP)

128, 176–178, 421. See also global navigation satellite system surveying techniques

prime agreement

493. See also design professionals’ contracts

principal distance

344. See also cameras

prism

210–212

offset

211

Topcon 360 degree prism and remote data collector

211f

Trimble 360 degree

211f. See also total stations

professional services and design professionals’ agreements

489

contract

489–491

design professional's contract with client

489

design professional's employment agreement

502

engineer and subconsultant

503

examples of design professionals’ agreements

502

licensed design professional

489

provisions for design professionals’ contracts

492–502

Program for Adjustment of GPS Ephemerides (PAGES)

413

projected coordinate system (PCS)

32, 34, 44, 81, 443

current zones of State Plane Coordinate System of 1983, 47f

increase in number of zones

51

linear distortion and projection axis location

50f

linear distortion at topographic surface

49, 51

linear distortion of

43f, 44t

low-distortion projections designed by stakeholders

54

parameters of

34–37

SPCS 27

44

special-use zones

54

stakeholder involvement in design process

51

State Plane Coordinate System

44–49

State Plane Coordinate System of 2022

49–56

State Plane Coordinate Systems of 1927 and 1983, 46f

zone layers

51, 52f

zone number designed by states for State Plane Coordinate System of 2022, 55f

zone number in each state for State Plane Coordinate System of 2022, 53f

zones of State Plane Coordinate System of 1983, 48f

coordinate reference system

projection axis

43

projective transformation

89. See also coordinate transformations

project monumentation

447

control diagram

447–448

mark descriptions

448. See also survey records

project planning

352–353

Property Index Number (PIN)

467

pseudorandom noise codes (PRN codes)

161. See also global positioning system signals

Public Regulated Service (PRS)

181

pulse repetition frequency (PRF)

362

Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS)

157, 182. See also Global Navigation Satellite System

query languages

469

SQL

469f. See also database

Radio Determination Satellite Service (RDSS)

181

Radio Navigation Satellite Service (RNSS)

181

Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services (RTCM)

174

radius of curvature:

in meridian

11

in prime vertical

11–12

random-access memory (RAM)

456

random errors

136. See also observational errors

range biases

162. See also error sources

range determination from laser to target

354f

ranging:

modalities

359–361

phase-based

361

raster data

459

functions of

460

vs. vector data

461. See also geographic information system

raster operators

473–474. See also spatial operators and geoprocessing tools

real-time kinematic (RTK)

174–176, 175f, 401, 429. See also global navigation satellite system surveying techniques

real-time network (RTN)

94, 176, 396. See also global navigation satellite system surveying techniques

receiver clock bias

162. See also error sources

receiver noise

163. See also error sources

red-green-blue (RGB)

233

redundancy

171. See also global positioning system survey planning

reference:

ellipsoids

9, 10t

stakes

433. See also construction surveys

referencing/witnessing a point

433

reflective targets

259–260. See also target-based registration

reflectors

. See prism

refraction:

correction formula

226

and curvature

226–227. See also total stations

registered civil engineer

. See licensed land surveyor

registration

253

alignment

253

calibration procedures

254–255

cloud-to-cloud surface matching

262–264

combined model after

254f

comparison

264, 265t–266t

coordinate systems

258

direct georeferencing

258

geodetic coordinate system

258

mixed approaches

264

occlusions

254f

rigid-body coordinate transformations

255

strategies

253

target-based

258–261

transformation points vs. validation points

255. See also terrestrial laser scanning

registration quality control

264

cloud-to-cloud technique

267

data completeness

271

GNSS coordinates obtained on points of inflection

269f

point density evaluations

270–271

quantitative error reporting from registration results

267

reflectorless total station shots on cliff surface to evaluate accuracy

268f

uncertainty analysis

267

validation control points

268

visual verification

269–270, 270f. See also registration

“regular” Mercator

32

relate

469. See also database

relative positioning

166. See also differential GPS

relief displacement

345

remote sensing

343. See also cameras

repeat or redundant observations

135. See also observational errors

request for Information (RFI)

480

Restricted Service (RS)

182

revolution, ellipsoid of

9

RGB-colored laser scan

235f. See also terrestrial laser scanning

RGB-D camera

324

rigid-body coordinate transformations

255. See also registration

rise and fall method

198–200. See also leveling

rod bubble

188, 190f. See also leveling instruments and equipment

rolling and global shutter cameras

382. See also aerial mapping with unmanned aircraft systems

root-mean-square error (RMSE)

88, 90, 119, 153

running distance/chainage

202. See also leveling

safety-of-life (SOL)

161

sample variance

137. See also observational errors

Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)

128, 161, 181

satellite-based surveying technology

157

differential GPS vs. relative positioning

163–166

error sources

162–163

future

182

global navigation satellite system surveying techniques

174–178

GPS modernization and global navigation satellite system

178–182

GPS segments

157–160

GPS signals

160–162

GPS survey planning

166–173

satellite clock bias

162. See also error sources

satellite laser ranging (SLR)

102

scale error

32

scale invariant feature transform (SIFT)

385

scanners

242

scan-to-building information modeling

482–483, 484f

Search and Rescue Service (SAR)

181

2nd Space Operations Squadron (2SOPS)

158

sense-and-avoid sensors

374

7-parameter similarity transformations

89. See also equation-based transformations

shape of Earth

7–8

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)

470

side shots

193. See also leveling

sigma points

325. See also indoor mobile mapping technology

simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM)

306

single photon-counting lidar (SPL)

361

single-point GPS

165. See also differential GPS

site layout stakes

434. See also construction surveys

site layout survey

. See construction staking

SLAM

322–323

algorithms

324–326

FastSLAM

326

graph-based

326

lidar-based

324

monocular

324

stereo vision

324

vision-based

324. See also indoor mobile mapping technology

slope:

calculation

454

stakes

433. See also construction surveys

geographic information system

slope distance

228f. See also total stations

softcopy stereoplotter

350, 351f. See also analytical photogrammetry

sokkia barcode rod

189f. See also leveling instruments and equipment

solid-state drives (SSDs)

456

sound mind

491. See also contract

spacebased augmentation systems (SBASs)

180

space vehicles (SVs)

167

spatial data

7. See also geodesy and geodetic computations

spatial joins

469. See also database

spatial operators and geoprocessing tools

470

automated feature identification in imagery

474

buffering

471

buffer tool for analysis in GISs

473f

elevation, slope, and aspect in lidar data set

477, 478f

focal operators

474

geoprocessing tools in GISs

472f

hillshades

477f

interpolation's results and ellipsoid heights in meters

476f

interpolation techniques

475–476

1D interpolation and 2D interpolation

475f

raster operators

473–474

topographic operations

476–477

topology

472–473

vector operators

471–472. See also information systems in civil engineering

spatial reference system (SRS)

29

spatial structuring filters

273–274. See also terrestrial laser scanning

Special Law of the Propagation of Variances (SLOPOV)

143

standard deviation:

of mean

139

for sample

137

of unit weight

149

for unknowns

149–150. See also observational errors

postadjustment statistics

standard error

137

ellipse

151

standardized residuals

153. See also observational errors

standard of care in negligence

494–495. See also design professionals’ contracts

State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)

29, 34, 44–49, 443

current zones of SPCS of 1983, 47f

of 1927 and 1983, 46f

SPCS 27

44

SPCS 83

37

2022, 49–56fo

zone layers for SPCS of 2022, 52f

zone number designed by states for SPCS of 2022, 55f

zone number in each state for SPCS of 2022, 53f

zones of SPCS of 1983, 48f

coordinate reference system

static GNSS surveying

. See static GPS surveying

static GPS surveying

174

station and offset

202. See also leveling

station data sheet

171–172, 172f. See also global positioning system survey planning

statistics

137. See also observational errors

stereopairs

346. See also aerial photogrammetry

stereo photography

346. See also aerial photogrammetry

stereoplotters

350–351. See also analytical photogrammetry

stereoscopic parallax

347. See also aerial photogrammetry

structured query language (SQL)

469f

structure-from-motion (SfM)

374

structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry

384

image processing workflow

385, 387f

point cloud

386

3D point cloud textured by RGB pixel values

386f

unmanned aircraft systems-structure-from-motion accuracy

386–388. See also unmanned aircraft systems

structure stakes

434. See also construction surveys

survey control

393

accuracy of OPUS-S and OPUS-RS vs. session duration

414f

adjustments and evaluating control

421–422

Bluebooking

413

brass disk

409f

combining results for least-squares survey network adjustment

420f

design curves for OPUS-Projects

418f

disk in concrete monument

411f

driven rod in grease-filled sleeve

410f

fundamental base layer

393

geodetic control

395–406

geodetic coordinate system

395

geodetic leveling specifications

412

geometric control

394

GNSS control surveying guidelines

412–413

horizontal control

394

interactive map of accuracy and availability of OPUS-RS

416f

local control

395

monumentation

409

M-PAGES

414

newest version of OPUS-Projects

419

NOS NGS-58 and 59

412–413

online positioning user service-projects

415, 417–419

online positioning user service-rapid static

414–415

online positioning user service-static

413–414

online tools for global navigation satellite system processing

419, 421

processing static GNSS data

420f

project planning and control

406, 408

recommended GNSS sessions for vertical accuracy standards

418t

recommended hub network design for session baseline processing

417f

recommended number and duration of network RTK observations on marks

421t

setting new control

409–411

survey diagram for geometric, vertical, and new control

408f

tools for control surveying

412–421

uploading RTK GNSS vectors to OPUS-Projects

420f

vertical control

394

surveying engineer

1, 2–3, 454

technology for practicing

2. See also engineering surveying

surveying engineering:

applications

86

products

77

“Survey of the Coast”

8

survey records

441, 449–450

company standards as

442

construction documents as

442–443

graphic survey records

445–447

numeric survey records

443–445

project monumentation

447–448

report of survey

449

typical survey records

442

suspended prism system

186f. See also leveling instruments and equipment

symmetric radial lens distortion coefficients

344. See also cameras

systematic errors (biases)

136. See also observational errors

tacheometry

209

target-based registration

258

pattern targets

260

reflective targets

259–260

scan software

259

target registration process

260–261

types of targets

259

usage of multiple geospatial technologies to georeference a scan

261f. See also registration

temporary bench marks (TBMs)

428

terrain modeling, filtering and

368

TerraSAR-X add-on for Digital Elevation Measurement (TANDEM-X)

470

terrestrial laser scanning (TLS)

233

advantage of

235

analyses

283

applications in civil engineering

236–241

artificial low points

272

basic geometry observations and equations

234f

best practices

287–288

care of equipment

253

change analysis

284–286

clash detection

286

CloudCompare

284

comparison of lidar platforms

249t

confusion matrix comparing predicted vs. actual classification accuracies

284f

contours from DTM of Weatherford Hall Grassy Knoll site

273f

conventional survey

233–234

data backup strategies

253

data quality considerations

244–247

density filters

273–274

differences to airborne and mobile lidar

248

feature extraction

278–283

field notes

253

field procedures

250

filtering

272–273

future changes

288

geometric modeling

276–277, 277f

increase in TLS time-of-flight data acquisition rates with time

235f

intensity analyses

286

intensity value

233

key references

236

leveling/inclination sensors

252–253

noise artifacts removed from scan data

272f

overview

236

planning and preliminary site surveys

248, 251t

point cloud of urban scene

234f

processing quality control

283

processing workflows

272–283

registration strategies

253

reverse engineering

286

RGB-colored laser scan

235f

sample applications of TLS

285f

sample of TLS applications

237t–240t, 241f

spatial structuring filters

273–274

structural analyses

287

system types

242–244

topographic mapping and digital terrain modeling

274–276

visibility analyses

287

visualization analysis

283–284

VR system with head tracking & wand interaction displaying TLS point cloud

286f

workflows

248, 250f

terrestrial laser scanning (TLS)

456

terrestrial reference frames (TRFs)

26, 49

texture-mapped triangulated surface model using methodology

275f

“third-party beneficiaries” provision

496. See also design professionals’ contracts

3D building models

456, 458f. See also geographic information system

3D geodetic inverse tool

16

topographic:

lidar over beach

356f

lidar systems

358

topographic and bathymetric aerial laser scanners

358–359. See also aerial laser scanning

topographic lidar systems

358. See also aerial laser scanning

topographic mapping

274. See also terrestrial laser scanning

topographic maps

341

topographic surveys

230–231. See also total stations

topology

472–473. See also spatial operators and geoprocessing tools

total stations

209

basic procedures

218–229

data collectors

210

design of modern

209

equipment

210–212

error trapping

230

extensions

213–215

final leveling

216–217

global navigation satellite system connection

214

heights

217–218

high-end total stations

213

imaging

214

instrument

215

laser plummet

216

layout work

231

Leica T2 theodolite

212f

Leica TCR 307 reflectorless

213f

leveling instrument with physical bubble tube

217f

linear bubbles on Leica TCR 307, 218f

modern

209

networks

230

optical plummet

215–216

orientation

212

prisms

210–212

processes

229–231

programmable

215

reflectorless

213

robotic

213–214

scanning

214

setting up

215–218

targeting

214

topographic surveys

230–231

traverse

229f

traversing

229–230

tribrach

215

tripod

210, 215

wild T-1602 electronic theodolite and DI-1001 EDM unit

210f

zeroing instrument

218. See also leveling

traditional surveying engineering methods

382

transformation control targets (TCT)

255, 314

Transportation Security Administration (TSA)

389

Transverse Mercator (TM)

32

traverse

229f. See also total stations

traversing

229–230. See also total stations

Triangular Irregular Networks (TINs)

247, 351

tribrach

215. See also total stations

tripods

187–188, 187f, 210, 215. See also leveling instruments and equipment

total stations

true value

137. See also observational errors

turning point

. See change point

2D and 3D equation-based transformations

130. See also equation-based transformations

two-peg test

191–193, 192f. See also leveling

UAS-collected imagery

376. See also unmanned aircraft systems

UAS photogrammetric and TLS point clouds

456, 457f. See also geographic information system

ultra-high-resolution modeling

275–276. See also terrestrial laser scanning

uncertainty analysis

267. See also registration

United States Standard Datum (USSD)

112

universal grids

56–58

zones of Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system

57f. See also grid vs. ground problem

map projections

Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS)

34

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

34

unmanned aircraft systems (UASs)

2, 306, 352, 373, 430, 456, 481

advantages of

374

aerial mapping with

376–384

-collected imagery

376

commercial platforms from 2015 to 2020 era

375f

“Know Before You Fly” website

389

platforms and sensors

374–376

regulations

388–389

structure-from-motion (SfM)

system components of

374. See also aerial surveying technology

unmanned aircraft systems-structure-from-motion (UAS-SfM)

accuracy

386–388

photogrammetry

384–388

unscented Kalman filter (UKF)

325

US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

2

US Defense Mapping Agency

101

US Department of Defense (DoD)

24

User Friendly CORS (UFCORS)

400

US National Grid (USNG)

58

US National Map Accuracy Standards (NMASs)

353

validation control points

268. See also registration

validation control targets (VCT)

255, 315

variance

137. See also observational errors

VDatum

119–120. See also grid-based coordinate transformations

vector data

461

raster vs.

461. See also geographic information system

vector operators

471–472. See also spatial operators and geoprocessing tools

VERTCON

117–118

vertical angles:

measuring

220–222

recording and reducing observations of

223t

reducing

222. See also total stations

vertical calibration

96–98. See also equation-based transformations

vertical control

394, 426, 428. See also construction surveys

survey control

vertical deflection

222–224. See also total stations

vertical take-off and landing (VTOL)

374

vertical transformations:

national geodetic survey hybrid and gravimetric geoid models

118–119

VDatum

119–120

VERTCON

117–118. See also grid-based coordinate transformations

vertical transformations

89. See also equation-based transformations

very long baseline Interferometry (VLBI)

102

virtual reality (VR)

455

building in

459, 460f. See also building information modeling

geographic information system

virtual reality user interface (VRUI)

284

visual verification

269–270, 270f. See also registration

weights

144

for differential leveling networks

147–148

error in angle observation

145

estimated standard error in pointing and reading of angle

145

example

145–146, 147

standard error caused by instrument-centering

145

standard error of observation

144–145

weight matrix

144. See also observational errors

wild T-1602 electronic theodolite

210f. See also total stations

World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84)

10, 58, 105–106. See also equation-based transformations

writing

492. See also contract

wye level with bubble tube below telescope

186f. See also leveling instruments and equipment

zenith angles

221. See also total stations

zeroing instrument

218. See also total stations

Zone Improvement Plan (ZIP)

467