Modeling the Stone Column Behavior in Soft Ground with Special Emphasis on Lateral Deformation
This article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLYThis article has a reply.
VIEW THE REPLYPublication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 143, Issue 6
Abstract
Among various ground-improvement techniques, soft-soil reinforcement by stone columns is one of the most common and convenient methods with numerous benefits including increased bearing capacity and consolidation, reduced postconstruction settlement and lateral movement, and improved slope stability and liquefaction control, among others. Because of the limited confinement offered by the surrounding soft soil especially at shallow depths, lateral deformation of stone columns is not uncommon. Although several analytical and numerical solutions are available to predict the load-settlement performance and consolidation characteristics of stone-column-improved soft ground, most existing models do not accurately capture the lateral deformation of stone columns. In view of this, the authors have developed in-house a novel numerical model based on the Fast Lagrangian Finite-Difference technique with associated subroutines to analyze the behavior of a stone column including its lateral deformation. In particular, the displacement compatibility and the barreling effect are considered in the model. Soft-soil consolidation under imposed loading is considered by adopting the modified Cam-clay theory. The proposed solutions are validated using available field observations and existing numerical solutions. The model was successfully applied to a selected case study at the Pacific Highway near the town of Ballina, New South Wales, Australia. It is demonstrated that both the deformation pattern and bulging depth of stone columns are dependent on several factors including the particle interlock, imposed load-intensity, soil-column stress concentration ratio, soil shear strength, and column geometry.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial supports received from the Australian Research Council (ARC) and industry partners, namely Coffey Geotechnics and Keller Ground Engineering, in the form of an industry linkage project. The editorial assistance of Mr. Bill Clayton is also acknowledged.
References
Adalier, K., and Elgamal, A. (2004). “Mitigation of liquefaction and associated ground deformations by stone columns.” Eng. Geol., 72(3–4), 275–291.
Alamgir, M., Miura, N., Pooorooshasb, H. B., and Madhav, M. R. (1996). “Deformational analysis of soft ground reinforced by columnar inclusions.” Comput. Geotech., 18(4), 267–290.
Altinbalik, T., and Çan, Y. (2011). “An upper bound analysis and determination of the barrelling profile in upsetting.” J. Eng. Math. Sci., 18(6), 416–424.
Asaro, R., and Lubardo, V. (2011). Mechanics of solids and materials, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Barron, B. A. (1947). “Consolidation of fine-grained soils by drain wells.” Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., 113(2346), 718–742.
Basack, S., Indraratna, B., and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2015a). “Modeling the performance of stone column-reinforced soft ground under static and cyclic loads.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., .
Basack, S., Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C., and Siahaan, F. (2015b). Theoretical and numerical perspectives on performance of stone column improved soft ground with reference to transport infrastructure, Elsevier, Oxford, U.K., 747–79.
Basack, S., Siahaan, F., Indraratna, B., and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2015c). “Influence of clogging on the performance of stone column improved soft ground.” Proc., 15th Pan-American Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, IOS Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1615–1622.
Black, J., Sivakumar, V., Madhav, M., and Hamill, G. (2007). “Reinforced stone columns in weak deposits: Laboratory model study.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1154–1161.
Bouassida, M., and Carter, J. (2014). “Optimization of design of column-reinforced foundations.” Int. J. Geomech., .
Brauns, J. (1978). “Die anfangstraglast von schottersäulen im bindigen untergrund.” Bautechnik, 55(8), 263–271 (in German).
Carter, W. T., and Lee, D. (1985). “A finite element analysis of cylinder and ring compression and its experimental verification.” Comp. Struct., 21(1–2), 1–19.
Clayton, C. R. I., Woods, R. I., Bond, A. J., and Milititsky, J. (2013). Earth pressure and earth retaining structures, 3rd Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Davis, E. H., and Booker, J. R. (1973). “The effect of increasing strength with depth on the bearing capacity of clays.” Géotechnique, 23(4), 551–563.
Deb, K., and Shiyamalaa, S. (2015). “Effect of clogging on rate of consolidation of stone column-improved ground by considering particle migration.” Int. J. Geomech., .
Deng, X. F., Liu, X. H., and Zhang, L. (2003). “A method to calculate the settlement of stone-column composite ground.” Chin. J. Xiangtan Min. Inst., 18(4), 55–57.
Duncan, J., and Mokwa, P. (2001). “Passive earth pressures: Theories and tests.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 248–257.
Fatahi, B., Basack, S., Premananda, S., and Khabbaz, H. (2012a). “Settlement prediction and back analysis of Young’s modulus and dilation angle of stone columns.” Aust. J. Civil Eng., 10(1), 67–80.
Fatahi, B., Le, T. M., and Khabbaz, H. (2012b). “Effects of initial stress state on performance of embankments on soft soils.” Aust. Geomach., 47(3), 75–86.
FHWA (Federal Highway Administration). (1983). “Design and construction of stone columns.”, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Fioravante, V., Ghionna, V. N., Pedroni, S., and Porcino, G. (1999). “A constant normal stiffness direct shear box for soil-solid interface tests.” Rivista Italiana Di Geotecnica, 3(99), 7–22.
FLAC version 8 [Computer software]. Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., Minneapolis.
Gasparre, A. (2005). “Advanced laboratory characterisation of London clay.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London.
Guetif, T., Bouassida, M., and Debats, J. M. (2007). “Improved soft clay characteristics due to stone column installation.” Comput. Geotech., 34(2), 104–111.
Han, J. (2015). “Recent research and development of ground column technologies.” Ground Improv., 168(4), 246–264.
Han, J., and Ye, S. L. (2001). “Simplified method for consolidation rate of stone column reinforced foundations.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 597–603.
Han, J., and Ye, S. L. (2002). “A theoretical solution for consolidation rates for stone column reinforced foundations accounting for smear and well resistance effects.” Int. J. Geomech., 135–151.
Hanna, A. M., Etezad, M., and Ayadat, T. (2013). “Mode of failure of a group of stone columns in soft soil.” Intl. J. Geomech., 87–96.
Hayashi, H., Yamazoe, N., Mitachi, T., Tanaka, H., and Nishimoto, S. (2012). “Coefficient of earth pressure at rest for normally and overconsolidated peat ground in Hokkaido area.” Soils Found., 52(2), 299–311.
Hughes, J. M. O., and Withers, N. J. (1974). “Reinforcing of soft cohesive soils with stone columns.” Ground Eng., 7(3), 42–49.
Hughes, J. M. O., Withers, N. J., and Greenwood, D. A. (1975). “A field trial of the reinforcing effect of a stone column in soil.” Géotechnique, 25(1), 31–44.
Indraratna, B. (2009). “Recent advances in the application of vertical drains and vacuum preloading in soft clay stabilization.” Aust. Geomech. J., 45(2), 1–44.
Indraratna, B., Basack, S., and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2013). “Numerical solution to stone column reinforced soft ground considering arching, clogging and smear effects.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 377–394.
Indraratna, B., Ngo, N. T., Rujikiatkamjorn, C., and Sloan, S. W. (2015). “Coupled discrete element-finite difference method for analysing the load-deformation behaviour of a single stone column in soft soil.” Comp. Geotech., 63, 267–278.
Isaac, D. S., and Girish, M. S. (2009). “Suitability of different materials for stone column construction.” El. J. Geotech. Eng., 14(D), 2–12.
Kirsch, K., and Bell, A. (2012). Ground improvement, 3rd Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Kulhawy, F. H. (1984). “Limiting tip or side resistance: Fact or fallacy.” Proc., Symp. on Analysis and Design of Pile Foundations, ASCE, Reston, VA, 80–98.
Kulkarni, K. M., and Kalpakjian, S. (1969). “A study of barrelling as an example of free deformation in plastic working.” J. Eng. Ind., 91(3), 743–754.
Lorenzo, G. A., and Bergado, D. T. (2003). “New consolidation equation for soil-cement pile improved ground.” Can. Geotech. J., 40(2), 265–275.
Lorenzo, G. A., and Bergado, D. T. (2004). “Fundamental parameters of cement-admixed clay—New approach.” J. Geotech. Geoenv. Eng., 1042–1050.
Lu, M. M., Xie, K. H., and Guo, B. (2010). “Consolidation theory for a composite foundation considering radial and vertical flows within the column and the variation of soil permeability within the disturbed soil zone.” Can. Geotech. J., 47(2), 207–217.
McCabe, B. A., Nimmons, G. J., and Egan, D. (2009). “A review of field performance of stone columns in soft soils.” Geotech. Eng., 162(6), 323–334.
McKelvey, D., Sivakumar, V., Bell, A., and Graham, J. (2004). “Modeling vibrated stone columns on soft clay.” Geotech. Eng., 157(3), 137–149.
McKenna, J. M., Eyre, W. A., and Wolstenholme, D. R. (1975). “Performance of an embankment supported by stone columns in soft ground.” Géotechnique, 25(1), 51–59.
Moavenian, M. H., Nazem, M., Carter, J. P., and Randolph, M. F. (2016). “Numerical analysis of penetrometers free-falling into soil with shear strength increasing linearly with depth.” Comput. Geotech., 72(2016), 57–66.
Mohamedzein, Y. E. A., and Al-Shibani, I. H. (2011). “Performance of an embankment supported on soft soil reinforced by stone columns.” Ground Improv., 164(4), 213–224.
Moseley, M. P., and Kirsch, K. (2004). Ground improvement, 2nd Ed., E & FN Spon, London, 57–118.
Murugesan, S., and Rajagopal, K. (2006). “Geosynthetic-encased stone columns: Numerical evaluation.” Geotex. Geomembr., 24(6), 349–358.
Murugesan, S., and Rajagopal, K. (2010). “Studies on the behavior of single and group of geosynthetic encased stone columns.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 129–139.
Oh, E. Y. N., et al. (2007). “Behaviour of a highway embankment on stone column improved estuarine clay.” Proc., 16th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conf., Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, 567–572.
PFC2D version 5 [Computer software]. Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., Minneapolis.
Raithel, M., and Kempfert, H. G. (2000). “Calculation models for dam foundations with geotextile coated sand columns.” Proc., Int. Conf. Geological, Geotechnical, Australian Geomechanics Society, Australia.
Raymond, G. P. (1967). “The bearing capacity of large footings and embankments on clay.” Géotechnique, 17(1), 1–10.
Roscoe, K. H., and Burland, J. B. (1968). “On the generalised stress-strain behaviour of ‘wet’ clay.” Engineering plasticity, J. Heyman and F. A. Leckie, eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 535–609.
Schey, J. A., Venner, T. R., and Takomana, S. L. (1982). “Shape changes in the upsetting of slender cylinders.” J. Eng. Ind., 104(1), 79–83.
Siahaan, F., Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C., and Basack S. (2014). “Vertical stresses in stone column and soft clay during one-dimensional consolidation test.” Proc., Soft Soils, Parahyangan Catholic Univ., Indonesia.
Siahaan, F., Kelly, R., and Wong, P. (2011). “Performance of an embankment constructed on stone columns.” Int. Conf. on Advanced Geotechnical Engineering, Curtin Univ. of Technology, Perth, Australia, 943–949.
Sivakumar, V., Jeludine, D. K. N. M., Bell, A., Glynn, D. T., and Mackinnon, P. (2011). “The pressure distribution along stone column in soft clay under consolidation and foundation loading.” Géotechnique, 61(7), 613–620.
Skempton, A. W. (1948). “A study of the geotechnical properties of some post-glacial clays.” Géotechnique, 1(1), 7–22.
Sun, L. N., and Gong, X. N. (2008). “Research on settlement calculation method of composite foundation of discrete material piles.” Chin. J. Rock Soil Mech., 29(3), 846–848.
Tandel, Y. K., Solanki, C. H., and Desai A. K. (2012). “Deformation behaviour of ground improved by reinforced stone columns.” Austr. Geomech., 47(2), 51–60.
Timoshenko, S. P., and Goodier, J. P. (1970). Theory of elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Tong, L., Liu, L., Cai, G., and Du, G. (2013). “Assessing the coefficient of the earth pressure at rest from shear wave velocity and electrical resistivity measurements.” Eng. Geol., 163(2013), 122–131.
Umezaki, T., Ochiai, H., and Hayashi, S. (1993). “Undrained shear strength of clay during consolidation.” Proc., 11th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conf., Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society, Bangkok, Thailand, 269–274.
Wang, G. (2009). “Consolidation of soft soil foundations reinforced by stone columns under time dependant loading.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1922–1931.
Zhang, L., Zhao, M., Shi, C., and Zhao, H. (2013). “Settlement calculation of composite foundation reinforced with stone columns.” Int. J. Geomech., 248–256.
Zomorodian, A., and Eslami, A. (2005). “Determining the geotechnical parameters of stabilized soils by stone column based on SPT results.” J. Geotech. Eng., 10(A), in press.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
©2017 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Oct 9, 2015
Accepted: Sep 21, 2016
Published ahead of print: Feb 20, 2017
Published online: Feb 21, 2017
Published in print: Jun 1, 2017
Discussion open until: Jul 21, 2017
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.