Nautical Depth for U.S. Navigable Waterways: A Review
Publication: Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering
Volume 142, Issue 2
Abstract
The present state of navigation engineering knowledge concerning nautical depth in ports and waterways with fluid mud is summarized to examine the potential for successful application of the nautical depth concept in U.S. navigable waterways. Nautical depth defines a safe and effective channel bottom criterion in areas where fluid mud confounds conventional acoustic (echo sounder) surveying methods. Fluid mud is a high-concentration suspension that typically behaves as a non-Newtonian fluid. It occurs in ports and channels on all U.S. coastlines and accounts for a significant portion of the United States’ $1 billion dredging expense. Nautical depth has been adopted in multiple ports on three continents. Where nautical depth application is appropriate, it often reduces dredging frequency and dredged material volume and can provide water quality benefits. Multiple experiments and field experience have shown that vessels can safely transit areas with fluid mud below the keel. The United States’ adoption of the nautical depth concept for select ports and waterways can be expected to reduce dredging frequency and volumes. It offers potential economic and environmental benefits but will require a consensus among federal, state, and local organizations with responsibilities for constructing, operating, maintaining, marking, and using navigable waterways.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This paper was prepared by the Coasts, Oceans, and Ports Institute’s Waterways Committee, Navigation Engineering Subcommittee. W. H. McAnally, R. Kirby, S. Hodge, T. L. Welp, N. Greiser, P. Shrestha, D. McGowan, and P. Turnipseed prepared this document with reviews and comments by K. Barbour, J. E. Clausner, W. Goldsmith, F. Huthoff, J. Lally, C. McArthur, K. S. McNeal, A. J. Mehta, M. Thompson, A. M. Teeter, D. Webb, and H. Winer. A condensed version of this material was presented for critique at the PIANC 2013 Conference in Liege, Belgium.
References
Alexander, M. P., Teeter, A. M., and Banks, G. E. (1997). “Development and verification of an intrusive hydrographic survey system for fluid mud channels.” Tech. Rep. DRP-97-1, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Boyer, J. N. (1994). “Aerobic and anaerobic degradation and mineralization of 14C-chitin by water column and sediment inocula of the York River Estuary, Virginia.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 60(1), 174.
Brossard, C., et al. (1990a). “Sécurité de la navigation dans les chenaux envasés.” Proc., 27th Int. Navigation Congress, PIANC, Osaka, Japan, 23–28 (in French).
Brossard, C., Delouis, A., Galichon, P., Granboulan, J., and Monadier, P. (1990b). “Navigability in channels subject to siltation physical scale model experiments.” 22nd Int. Conf. Coastal Engineering, B. L., Edge, ed., ASCE, New York, 3088–3101.
Claessens, J., and Marain, J. (1988). “Access channel to the Kallo lock. Research of alternative dredging methods.” Proc., 9th KVIV Harbour Congress, Antwerp, Belgium, 189–200.
Claeys, S., Vanlede, J., and Verwaest, T. (2013). Measuring the nautical bottom: A challenge, Dept. of Mobility and Public Works, Antwerp, Belgium.
CTH (Committee on Tidal Hydraulics). (1971). Estuarine navigation projects, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS.
Delefortrie, G., and Vantorre, M. (2006). “Effects of a muddy bottom on the straight-line stability.” Proc., 7th IFAC Conf. on Manoeuvring and Control of Marine Craft, Lisbon, Portugal.
Delefortrie, G., and Vantorre, M. (2009). Squat in muddy navigation areas, nautical aspects of ship dynamics, 3rd squat-workshop, Univ. of Applied Sciences, Elsfleth, Germany.
Delefortrie, G., Vantorre, M., and Eloot, K. (2005). “Modelling navigation in muddy areas through captive model tests.” J. Mar. Sci. Technol., 10(4), 188–202.
Delefortrie, G., Vantorre, M., Verzhbitskaya, E., and Seynaeve, K. (2007). “Evaluation of safety of navigation in muddy areas through real-time maneuvering simulation.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-950X(2007)133:2(125), 125–135. https://doi.org/(ASCE)0733-950X(2007)133:2(125)
Druyts, M., and Brabers, P. (2012). “Nautical depth, rheocable sounding method and maintenance dredging in muddy areas.” Int. Hydrol. Rev., 7, 43–61.
Ellis, J. C. (2002). “Water quality trends in the Severn Estuary.” R & D Tech. Rep. No. E133, Environment Agency, Bristol, U.K.
EPA. (2014). “Dredged material management program,” 〈archive.epa.gov/region02/water/dredge/web/html/〉 (Aug. 20, 2014).
Ernst, A., and Greiser, N. (1992). “Investigations of the Cu-adsorption on suspended matter flocs formed by clay minerals and bacteria.” Geol. Carpathica Clays, 57(1), 49–54.
Fontein, W. F., and Byrd, R. W. (2007). “The nautical depth approach: A review for implementation.” Proc., WODCON XVIII Annual Dredging Seminar, R. E., Randall, ed., Western Dredging Association, Vancouver, WA, 767–772.
Fredette, T. J., Nelson, D. A., Clausner, J. E., and Anders, F. J. (1990). “Guidelines for physical and biological monitoring of aquatic dredged material disposal sites.” Tech. Rep. D-9-12, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
GeoVal. (2003). Value Engineering Rep., Atchafalaya bar channel fluff and fluid mud study, San Diego.
Greiser, N. (2005). Bilanzierung und physikalische charakterisierung der zur entnahme und umlagerung vorgesehenen sedimente im tirpitzhafen - kiel—ergebnis der messeinsätze in der zeit vom 12.10.2005 bis 09.11.2005, Auftrag des wasser und schifffahrtsamtes, Lübeck, Germany (in German).
Greiser, N. (2007). Monitoring of the nautical depth generated by WID in the Schleusenhafen/Fischereihafen 2005 and 2006, Bremenports GmbH & Co. KG, Dredging Dept., Bremerhaven, Germany.
Hall, C. L. (2014). “A model of fluid mud transport.” Ph.D. thesis, Mississippi State Univ., Starkville, MS.
Hamilton, E. I., Watson, P. G., Cleary, J. J., and Clifton, R. J. (1979). “The geochemistry of recent sediments of the Bristol Channel: Severn Estuary system.” Mar. Geol., 31(1–2), 139–182.
Herbich, J. B., Darby, D., Wilkinson, G., Krafft, K., and De Hert, D. (1989). “Definition of navigable depth in fine-grain sediments.” Center for Dredging Studies Rep. No. 312, Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX.
Hoppe, H.-G., Kim, S.-J., and Gocke, K. (1988). “Microbial decomposition in aquatic environments: Combined process of exocellular enzyme activity and substrate uptake.” Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 54(3), 784–790.
IHO (International Hydrographic Organization). (2008). IHO standards forhydrographic surveys, 5th Ed., Special Publication No. 44, Monaco.
IMO/WODA/CEDA (International Maritime Organization/World Organization of Dredging Associations/Central Dredging Association). (2012). Waste assessment guidelines training set extension for the application of low-technology techniques for assessing dredged material, Spotsylvania, VA, 〈http://www.dredging.org/documents/ceda/downloads/2012-london-convention-wag_te-vers_1_0.pdf〉 (Aug. 1, 2014).
Kirby, R. (1988). “High concentration suspension (fluid mud) layers in estuaries.” Physical processes in estuaries, J. Dronkers and W. van Leussen, eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 463–487.
Kirby, R., and Parker, W. R. (1974). “Seabed density measurements related to echo sounder records.” Dock Harb. Auth., 54(641), 26–37.
Kirby, R., Parker, W. R., and van Oostrum, W. H. A. (1980). “Definition of the seabed in navigation routes through mud areas.” Int. Hydrogr. Rev., 57(1), 107–117.
Kirby, R., Wurpts, R., and Greiser, N. (2008). “Emerging concepts for managing fine cohesive sediment: Sediment and ecohydraulics.” Proc. 8th Int. Conf. on Cohesive Sediment Transport INTERCOH 2005, T. Kusada, H. Yamanishi, J. Spearman, and J. Z. Gailani, eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1–15.
Krone, R. B. (1963). A study of rheologic properties of estuarial sediments. Technical Bulletin 7, Hydraulic Engineering and Sanitary Engineering Laboratories, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA.
Krone, R. B. (1972). A field study of flocculation as a factor in estuarial shoaling processes. Technical Bulletin 19, Committee on Tidal Hydraulics, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS.
Magurran, A. E., and Henderson, P. A. (2003). “Explaining the excess of rare species in natural species abundance distributions.” Nature, 422(6933), 714–716.
McAnally, W. H., et al. (2007a). “Management of fluid mud in estuaries, bays, and lakes. I: Present state of understanding on character and behavior.” J. Hydraul. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2007)133:1(9), 9–22. https://doi.org/(ASCE)0733-9429(2007)133:1(9)
McAnally, W. H., et al. (2007b). “Management of fluid mud in estuaries, bays, and lakes. II: Measurement, modeling, and management.” J. Hydraul. Eng., 23–38.
Mehta, A. J., Lee, S.-C., and Li, Y. (1994). “Fluid mud and water waves: A brief review of interactive processes and simple modeling approaches.” WES Contract Rep. No. DRP-94-4, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Mehta, A. J., and McAnally, W. H. (2008). “Fine-grained sediment transport.” Sedimentation engineering: Processes, measurements, modeling, and practice, M., Garcia, ed., ASCE, Reston, VA, 253–306.
Mehta, A. J., Samsami, F., Khare, Y. P., and Sahin, C. (2014). “Fluid mud properties in nautical depth estimation.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000228, 210–222. https://doi.org/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000228
Meinsma, R., and Wiertsema & Partners (2012). “Project plan sustainable maintenance dredging Delfzijl: Phase 3 full scale field tests.” Project Rep. November 01-2012, Delfzijl, Netherlands.
NDC (Navigation Data Center). (2014). Dredging program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC. 〈http://www.navigationdatacenter.us/dredge/dredge.htm〉 (May 5, 2014).
Nederlof, L., and van Bochove, G. (1981). “Manoeuvring behaviour of ships in muddy canals and harbours.” Dock Harb. Auth., 62(720), 19–28.
Nijssen, J. P. J. (1988). “Rotterdam dredged material: Approach to handling.” Environmental management of solid waste, W., Salomons, U., Förstner, eds., Springer-Verlag, Rotterdam, 243–281.
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). (2012). “Hydrographic surveys: Specifications and deliverables.” 〈http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/hsd/docs/Specifications_and_Deliverables_Apr2012.pdf〉 (May 5, 2014).
NRC (National Research Council). (1983). Criteria for the depth of dredged navigational channels, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
NRC (National Research Council). (1996). Stemming the tide: Controlling introductions of nonindigenous species by ships’ ballast water, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Parker, W. R., and Kirby, R. (1982). “Time dependent properties of cohesive sediment relevant to sedimentation management: European experience.” Estuarine comparisons, V. S. Kennedy, ed., Academic Press, New York.
Periáñez, P., Absi, A., Villa, M., Moreno, H. P., and Manjón, G. (2005). “Self-cleaning in an estuarine area formerly affected by anthropogenic enhancements: Numerical simulations.” Sci. Total Environ., 339(1–3), 207–218.
PIANC (World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure). (1997). Approach channels, a guide for design, Supplement to Bulletin, No. 95, Brussels, Belgium.
PIANC (World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure). (2008). “Minimizing harbor siltation.” Rep. No. 102-2008, MarCom Working Group 102, Brussels, Belgium.
PIANC (World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure). (2014). “Harbour approach channels, design guidelines.” Rep. No. 121, MarCom Working Group 102, Brussels, Belgium.
Prexl, E. (2002). “Prolonged experience of natural TBT degradation in harbour sediments in storage fields.” Rep. to Emden Port Authority (in German).
Sellmeijer, R., and van Oortmerssen, G. (1983). “The effect of mud on tanker manoeuvres.” Spring Meetings 1983, The Royal Institution of Naval Architects, London, 161–177.
SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea). (1974). International Convention for The Safety of Life At Sea, United Nations Treaty Series, New York, 〈https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201184/volume-1184-I-18961-English.pdf〉 (Apr. 26, 2015).
Stedman, J. G. (1806). “Narrative, of a five years' expedition, against the revolted negroes of Surinam, in Guiana, on the wild coast of South America; from the Year 1772, to 1777: Elucidating the history of that country, and describing its productions, with an account of the Indians of Guiana, & Negroes of Guinea.” 〈http://books.google.com/books?id=6r8WAAAAYAAJ〉 (July 4, 2012).
Teeter, A. M. (1991). Navigable depth concept for channels with fine-grained sediment, Dredging Research Exchange Bull, DRP-91-4, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.
Teeter, A. M. (1992a). “Evaluation of a new fluid mud survey system at field sites.” Dredging Research Rep. No. DRP-2-05, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Teeter, A. M. (1992b). “The viscous characteristics of channel-bottom muds.” Technical Note DRP-2-04, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Teeter, A. M. (1997). “Development and verification of an intrusive hydrographic survey system for fluid mud channels.” Dredging Research Program Tech. Rep. DRP-97-1, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.
Tubman, M., Welp, T., Sullivan, M., and Columbo, C. (2015). “Evaluation of the use of a bed leveler to improve navigability of Atchafalaya River bar channel fluid mud.” DOER Tech. Rep., U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.
UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea). (2012). “LEG/MISC.7: Implications of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea for the International Maritime Organization, study by the secretariat of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), 19 January 2012.” 〈http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Legal/Documents/Implications%20of%20UNCLOS%20for%20IMO.pdf〉 (Mar. 18, 2013).
USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). (1954). Laboratory and field tests of sounding leads.” Technical Memorandum No. 54, Beach Erosion Board, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Washington, DC.
USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). (1992). “The viscous characteristics of channel bottom muds.” Dredging Research Technical Note DRP-2-04, Vicksburg, MS.
USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). (2006). “Hydraulic design of deep draft navigation projects.” Engineer Manual 1110-2-1613, Washington, DC.
USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). (2013). “Hydrographic surveying.” Engineer Manual 1110-2-1003, Washington, DC.
USC (United States Code). (2011). Title 46: Shipping, Chapter 32: Management of Vessels, Washington, DC.
USNGIA (U.S. National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency). (2010). Sailing directions (enroute), east coast of South America, Bethesda, MD.
Van Craenenbroeck, K., Vantorre, M., and De Wolf, P. (1991). “Navigation in muddy areas: Establishing the navigable depth in the port of Zeebrugge.” Proc., CEDA-PIANC Conf. on Accessible Harbours, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1–6.
Vantorre, M. (1990). “Systematische proevenreeksen met het zelfaangedreven schaalmodel van een sleephopperzuiger boven een mengsel petroleum-trichloorethaan als slibsimulatiemateriaal: Experimentele waarnemingen en theoretische interpretaties.” Rep., Ghent Univ.–Flanders Hydraulics Research, Ghent/Antwerp, Belgium (in Dutch).
Vantorre, M. (1991). “Ship behaviour and control at low speed in layered fluids.” Proc. Int. Symp. on Hydro- and Aerodynamics in Marine Engineering, BSHC, Varna, Bulgaria, 5-1 to 5-9.
Vantorre, M., Laforce, E., and Delefortrie, G. (2006). “A novel methodology for revision of the nautical bottom.” Proc., of MAREDflow, Y., Peeters, et al., eds., Oostende, Belgium, 15–34.
Welp, T., McNair, C., and Buchanan, L. (2004). “Corps evaluation of fluid mud measurement and the definition of navigable depth.” Proc., Western Dredging Association 24th Technical Conf. and 36th Texas A & M Dredging Seminar, Orlando, FL, 69–74.
Winterwerp, J. C. (1999). “On the dynamics of high-concentrated mud suspensions.” Ph.D. thesis, Technical Univ. of Delft, Delft, Netherlands.
Winterwerp, J. C., and Wang, Z. B. (2013). “Man-induced regime shifts in small estuaries—I: Theory.” Ocean dynamics: Theoretical, computational and observational oceanography, Vol. 63, Springer-Verlag, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1279–1292.
Winterwerp, J. C., Wang, Z. B., van Braeckel, A., van Holland, G., and Kösters, F. (2013). “Man-induced regime shifts in small estuaries—II: A comparison of rivers.” Ocean Dyn., 63(11–12), 1293–1306.
Wit de, P. C., Meijer, H., Gamnitzer, R., Greiser, N., and Rupp, J. (2003). “Reducing siltation by nautical dredging: Investigation results from Botlek Harbour, Rotterdam.” Proc., CEDA Dredging Days 2003, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 61–70.
Wurpts, R. (2005). “15 years experience with fluid mud: Definition of nautical bottom with rheological parameters.” Terra et Aqua, 99, 22–32.
Wurpts, R., and Greiser, N. (2010). “Konditionierung konsolidierter sedimente in der ems (zwischen emskilometer 44,5 und 45) zur verbesserung der nautischen eigenschaften- ergebnisse des baggertests und der begleituntersuchungen.” Auftrag des Wasser und Schifffahrtsamtes, Emden, Germany (in German).
Xu, J., and Yuan, J. (2003). “Study on the possibility of occurrence of fluid mud in the Yangtze deep waterway.” Proc., Int. Conf. on Estuaries and Coasts,, International Research and Training Center on Erosion and Sedimentation (IRTCES), Hangzhou, China, 516–520.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering
Volume 142 • Issue 2 • March 2016
Copyright
© 2015 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Sep 8, 2014
Accepted: Jan 13, 2015
Published online: Sep 18, 2015
Discussion open until: Feb 18, 2016
Published in print: Mar 1, 2016
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.