Identifying Residential Water End Uses Underpinning Peak Day and Peak Hour Demand
Publication: Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
Volume 140, Issue 7
Abstract
Accurate and up-to-date peak demand data are essential to ensure that future mains water supply networks reflect current usage patterns and are designed efficiently from an engineering, environmental, and economic perspective. The aim of this paper was to identify the water end-uses that drive peak day demand and to examine their associated hourly diurnal demand patterns based on over 18 months of water consumption data obtained from high-resolution smart meters installed in 230 residential properties across South East Queensland, Australia. Peak day (PD) to average day (AD) ratios between 1 and 1.5 were driven by both external and internal end-uses. However, as the PD:AD ratio increased above 1.5, demand was driven largely by external water usage (i.e., lawn and garden irrigation). Peak hour ratios (i.e., PHPD:PHAD) ranged from 1.3 to 3.0 for the four peak demand days. At the end-use level, the individual end-use category PHPD:PHAD ratios were in the range of 0.7–3.3 for all end-uses, with the exception of external or irrigation. The ratio for this latter end-use category was typically very high, at over 10 times the average irrigation demand. Comparisons with historically based, but currently used, peaking factors used for network distribution modeling suggest that the degree and frequency of high peaking factors are lower now, due to the high penetration of water-efficient technology and growing water conservation awareness by consumers.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the Urban Water Security Research Alliance for funding the SEQREUS project, from which much of this data was based.
References
Adamowski, J. (2008). “Peak daily water demand forecast modeling using artificial neural networks.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 119–128.
Adamowski, J., and Karapataki, C. (2010). “Comparison of multivariate regression and artificial neural networks for peak urban water-demand forecasting: Evaluation of different ANN learning algorithms.” J. Hydrol. Eng., 729–743.
Alcocer-Yamanaka, V., Tzatchkov, V., and Arreguin-Cortes, F. (2012). “Modeling of drinking water distribution networks using stochastic demand.” Water Resour. Manage., 26(7), 1779–1792.
Aquacraft. (2006). Trace wizard water use analysis tool, Boulder, CO.
Aquacraft. (2010). Trace Wizard version 4.1, 1995–2010 Aquacraft, Boulder, CO.
Arbues, F., Villanua, I., and Barberan, R. (2010). “Household size and residential water demand: An empirical approach.” Aust. J. Agr. Resour. Econ., 54(1), 61–80.
Basupi, I., Kapelan, Z., and Butler, D. (2011). “Optimising rehabilitation of water distribution systems accounting for water demand management interventions.” Proc., Computing and Control for the Water Industry (CCWI) Conf. 2011, Centre for Water Systems, Univ. of Exeter, U.K., 1–6.
Beal, C., Stewart, R., Huang, T., and Rey, E. (2011). “SEQ residential end-use study.” Aust. Water Assoc. J., 38(1), 80–84.
Beal, C. D., Gardner, T., Sharma, A., and Chong, M. (2012). “A desktop analysis of potable water savings from internally plumbed rainwater tanks in south-east Queensland, Australia.” Water Resour. Manage., 26(6), 1577–1590.
Beal, C. D., and Stewart, R. A. (2011). “South East Queensland residential end-use study: Final report.”, Queensland Government, Australia.
Blokker, E., Vreeburg, J., and van Dijk, J. (2010). “Simulating residential water demand with a stochastic end-use model.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 19–26.
Carragher, B., Stewart, R., and Beal, C. (2012). “Quantifying the influence of residential water appliance efficiency on average day diurnal demand patterns at an end-use level: A precursor to optimised water service infrastructure planning.” Resour. Conserv. Recy., 62, 81–90.
Cole, G., and Stewart, R. A. (2012). “Smart meter enabled disaggregation of urban peak water demand: precursor to effective urban water planning.” Urban Water J., 10(3), 174–194.
Dept. of Environment, and Resource Management (DERM). (2010). “Planning guidelines for water supply and sewerage.” Chapter 5, Demand/Flow projections, Office of the Water Supply Regulator, Brisbane, QLD, 〈http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/water/regulation/pdf/guidelines/water_services/wsguidelines.pdf〉 (Jun. 5, 2012).
Fidar, A., Memon, F., and Butler, D. (2010). “Environmental implications of water efficient microcomponents in residential buildings.” Sci. Total Environ., 408(23), 5828–5835.
Fielding, K., Spinks, A., Russell, S., McCrea, R., Stewart, R. A., and Gardner, J. (2013). “An experimental test of voluntary strategies to promote urban water demand management.” J. Environ. Manage., 114, 343–351.
Firth, S., Lomas, K., Wright, A., and Wall, R. (2008). “Identifying trends in the use of domestic appliances from household electricity consumption measurements.” Energy Build., 40(5), 926–936.
Forsyth, A., Nicholls, G., and Raye, B. (2010). “Higher density and affordable housing: Lessons from the corridor housing initiative.” J. Urban Des., 15(2), 269–284.
Froehlich, J., et al. (2011). “A longitudinal study of pressure sensing to infer real-world water usage events in the home.” Pervasive computing, K. Lyons, J. Hightower, and E. Huang, eds., Springer, Berlin, 50–69.
Gleick, P. (2003). “Global freshwater resources: Soft-Path Solutions for the 21st Century.” Science, 302(5650), 1524–1528.
Goulter, I., and Morgan, D. (1985). “An integrated approach to the layout and design of water distribution networks.” Civ. Eng. Syst., 2(2), 104–113.
Gregory, G., and Di Leo, M. (2003). “Repeated behavior and environmental psychology: The role of personal involvement and habit formation in explaining water consumption.” Appl. Soc. Psychol., 33(6), 1261–1296.
Heinrich, M. (2007). “Water end-use and efficiency project (WEEP)—Final report.”, Branz, Judgeford, New Zealand.
Jacobs, H. (2007). “The first reported correlation between end-use estimates of residential water demand and measured use in South Africa.” Water SA, 33(4), 549–558.
Lim, S.-R., Suh, S., Kim, J.-H., and Park, H. S. (2010). “Urban water infrastructure optimization to reduce environmental impacts and costs.” J. Environ. Manage., 91(3), 630–637.
Lucas, S., Coombes, P., and Sharma, A. (2010). “The impact of diurnal water use patterns, demand management and rainwater tanks on water supply network design.” Water Sci. Technol., 10(1), 69–80.
Makropoulos, C. K., Natsis, K., Liu, S., Mittas, K., and Butler, D. (2008). “Decision support for sustainable option selection in integrated urban water management.” Environ. Model. Software, 23(12), 1448–1460.
Mayer, P., et al. (1999). Residential end-uses of water, American Water Works Association Research Foundation, Denver, CO.
Mayer, P. (2006). “Trace wizard water use analysis tool.” Aquacraft, Boulder, CO.
Polebitski, A. S., Palmer, R. N., and Waddell, P. (2011). “Evaluating water demands under climate change and transitions in the urban environment.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 249–257.
Queensland Government. (2012). “Queensland rainfall—Past, present and future.” A joint report by the Queensland Government (Office of Climate Change, DERM), the Walker Institute, and the U.K. National Centre for Atmospheric Science, 〈http://www.climatechange.qld.gov〉 (Jun. 5, 2012).
Roberts, P. (2005). “Yarra Valley Water 2004 residential end-use measurement study.” Yarra Valley Water, VIC, Australia.
Savic, D. A., and Walters, G. A. (1997). “Genetic algorithms for least-cost design of water distribution networks.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 67–77.
Short, M., Peirson, W., Peters, G., and Ronald, J. (2012). “Managing adaptation of urban water systems in a changing climate.” Water Resour. Manage., 26(7), 1953–1981.
Shvartser, L., Shamir, U., and Feldman, M. (1993). “Forecasting hourly water demands by pattern recognition approach.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 611–627.
Stewart, R., Willis, R., Giurco, D., Panuwatwanich, K., and Capati, G. (2010). “Web based knowledge management system: Linking smart metering to the future of urban water planning.” Australian Planner, 47(2), 66–74.
Surendran, S., Tanyimboh, T. T., and Tabesh, M. (2005). “Peaking demand factor-based reliability analysis of water distribution systems.” Adv. Eng. Software, 36(11–12), 789–796.
Swamee, P., and Sharma, A. (2008). Design of water supply pipe networks, Wiley, New Jersey.
Traves, W., Gardner, E., Dennien, B., and Spiller, D. (2008). “Towards indirect potable reuse in south east Queensland.” Water Sci. Technol., 58(1), 153–161.
Tsang, M. (2010). “Utilising high resolution water consumption data to inform peak demand factors in gold coast pipe network models.” honours thesis, School of Engineering, Griffith Univ.
Twort, A., Law, F., Crowley, F., and Ratnayaka, D. (1994). Water supply, Edward Arnold, London.
van Zyl, J. E., le Gat, Y., Piller, O., and Walski, T. M. (2012). “Impact of water demand parameters on the reliability of municipal storage tanks.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 553–561.
van Zyl, J. E., Piller, O., and le Gat, Y. (2008). “ Sizing municipal storage tanks based on reliability criteria.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 548–555.
Walton, A., and Hume, M. (2011). “Creating positive habits in water conservation: The case of the Queensland Water Commission and the Target 140 campaign.” Int. J. Nonprofit Voluntary Sect. Market., 16(3), 215–224.
Water Corporation. (2011). Perth residential water use study 2008/2009, Water Forever, Water Corporation, Western Australia.
Water Services Association of Australia (WSAA). (2002). “Water Supply Code of Australia, Melbourne retail water agencies edition: Version 1.0.” WSA 03–2002.
Wilkes, C., Mason, A., Niang, L., Jensen, K., and Hern, S. (2005). “Evaluation of the meter-master data logger and the trace wizard analysis software. Special appendix to quantification of exposure-related water uses for various U.S. Subpopulations: Appendix to quantification of exposure-related water uses for various U.S. Subpopulations.” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, NV.
Willis, R. M., et al. (2013). “End-use water consumption in households: impact of socio-demographic factors and efficient devices.” J. Clean. Prod., 60, 107–115.
Willis, R. M., Stewart, R. A., Williams, P. R., Hacker, C. H., Emmonds, S. C., and Capati, G. (2011). “Residential potable and recycled water end-uses in a dual reticulated supply system.” Desalination, 272(1–3), 201–211.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
Volume 140 • Issue 7 • July 2014
Copyright
© 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jul 3, 2012
Accepted: Feb 6, 2013
Published online: Feb 9, 2013
Published in print: Jul 1, 2014
Discussion open until: Aug 28, 2014
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.