Experimental Testing of a Low-Damage Post-Tensioned C-Shaped CLT Core-Wall
Publication: Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 147, Issue 3
Abstract
The development of strong and stiff lateral load-resisting systems (LLRS) is essential for mid-rise and high-rise timber buildings. On the other hand, within a seismic design philosophy, strength/stiffness and ductility/drift capacity typically appear as opposite target parameters, depending on the acceptable level of damage. For improved stiffness and strength, core-wall tubular structural forms commonly are used for taller reinforced concrete (RC) buildings. This paper presents an experimental study of a new type of LLRS in cross-laminated timber (CLT). A post-tensioned C-shaped CLT core-wall mainly using screwed connections was designed and tested under unidirectional and bidirectional cyclic loading. It was found that the mixed-angle screwed connection solution was the most effective. The highest partial composite action of 60%–70% was reached and the core-wall system stiffness at serviceability limit state increased more than four times compared with a decoupled test with only friction between the CLT panels. The (unbonded) post-tensioning technology provided strong and stiff core-wall base connections with recentering capability and small residual displacements. The experimental test results confirmed that significant system strength/stiffness and ductility/drift capacity can be achieved in a post-tensioned C-shaped CLT core-wall system with minimal damage through careful connection detailing.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the sponsorship of Speciality Wood Products Partnership, New Zealand Douglas-Fir Association, Australian Research Council, SPAX Pacific, BBR Contech, and the New Zealand Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan. PTL Structural Consultants is acknowledged for the use of the Pres-Lam system and patent [Buchanan et al., “An engineering wood construction system for high performance structures using pre-stressed tendons and replaceable energy dissipaters,” New Zealand Patent No. 549,029 (2007)] in this research. The authors thank the anonymous reviewers whose comments are gratefully acknowledged. The technical support from Peter Coursey, Russell McConchie, Alan Thirwell, and Michael Weavers and technical comments from Andrew Dunbar, Daniel Moroder, and Michael Newcombe also are gratefully acknowledged.
References
ACI (American Concrete Institute). 2008. Acceptance criteria for special unbonded post-tensioned precast structural walls based on validation testing and commentary. Farmington Hills, MI: ACI.
ACI (American Concrete Institute). 2011. Building code requirements for structural concrete and commentary. ACI 318M-11. Farmington Hills, MI: ACI.
Amini, M. O., J. W. van de Lindt, D. Rammer, S. Pei, P. Line, and M. Popovski. 2018. “Systematic experimental investigation to support the development of seismic performance factors for cross laminated timber shear wall systems.” Eng. Struct. 172 (Oct): 392–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.06.021.
Avista and South Landing Investors. 2018. “Catalyst Spokane.” Accessed September 17, 2020. http://www.catalystspokane.com/.
Beyer, K., A. Dazio, and M. J. N. Priestley. 2008. “Quasi-static cyclic tests of two U-shaped reinforced concrete walls.” J. Earthquake Eng. 12 (7): 1023–1053. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632460802003272.
Brown, J., M. Li, R. Nokes, A. Palermo, S. Pampanin, and F. Sarti. 2020a. “Investigating the compressive toe of post-tensioned CLT core-walls use Particle Tracking Technology.” In Proc., 17th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Brown, J. R., M. Li, T. Tannert, and D. Moroder. 2020b. “Experimental study on orthogonal joints in cross-laminated timber with self-tapping screws installed with mixed angles.” Eng. Struct. 111560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111560.
Buchanan, A. 2016. “The challenges for designers of tall timber buildings.” In Proc., World Conf. in Timber Engineering. New York City: TU Verlag.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2014. Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures—Part 1-1: General-Common rules and rules for buildings. Brussels, Belgium: CEN.
Chen, Z., M. Popovski, and A. Iqbal. 2020. “Structural performance of post-tensioned CLT shear walls with energy dissipators.” J. Struct. Eng. 146 (4): 04020035. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002569.
Constantin, R., and K. Beyer. 2014. “Non-rectangular RC walls: A review on experimental investigations.” In Proc., 2nd European Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 1–12. Istanbul, Turkey: European Association for Earthquake Engineering.
CSA (Canadian Standards Association). 2019. Engineering design in wood. CSA 086. Mississauga, ON, Canada: CSA.
Di Cesare, A., F. C. Ponzo, D. Nigro, S. Pampanin, and T. Smith. 2017. “Shaking table testing of post-tensioned timber frame building with passive energy dissipation systems.” Bull. Earthquake Eng. 15 (10): 4475–4498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-017-0115-9.
Dujic, B., J. Pucelj, and R. Zarnic. 2004. “Testing of racking behavior of massive wooden wall panels.” In Proc., 37th CIB-W18 Meeting. Karlsruhe, Germany: Universitat Karlsruhe.
Dunbar, A., D. Moroder, S. Pampanin, and A. Buchanan. 2014. “Timber core-walls for lateral load resistance of multi-storey timber buildings.” In Proc., World Conf. on Timber Engineering. Quebec City: World Conference on Timber Engineering.
ETA (European Technical Approval)-Danmark. 2017. SPAX self-tapping screws–screws for use in timber constructions. ETA-12/0114. Charlottenlund, Denmark: ETA.
ETA (European Technical Approval)-Danmark. 2018. Macalloy 1030 post tensioning system. ETA-07/0046. Charlottenlund, Denmark: ETA.
FEMA. 2009. Quantification of building seismic performance factors. FEMA P695. Washington, DC: FEMA.
Flatscher, G., K. Bratulic, and G. Schickhofer. 2015. “Experimental tests on cross-laminated timber joints and walls.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Struct. Build. 168 (11): 868–877. https://doi.org/10.1680/stbu.13.00085.
Ganey, R., J. Berman, T. Akbas, S. Loftus, J. D. Dolan, R. Sause, J. Ricles, S. Pei, J. V. D. Lindt, and H. E. Blomgren. 2017. “Experimental investigation of self-centering cross-laminated timber walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 143 (10): 04017135. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001877.
Gavric, I., M. Fragiacomo, and A. Ceccotti. 2015. “Cyclic behavior of CLT wall systems: Experimental tests and analytical prediction models.” J. Struct. Eng. 141 (11): 4015034. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001246.
Granello, G., C. Leyder, A. Palermo, A. Frangi, and S. Pampanin. 2018a. “Design approach to predict post-tensioning losses in post-tensioned timber frames.” J. Struct. Eng. 144 (8): 04018115. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002101.
Granello, G., A. Palermo, S. Pampanin, S. Pei, and J. v. d. Lindt. 2020. “Pres-Lam buildings: State-of-the-art.” J. Struct. Eng. 146 (6): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002603.
Granello, G., A. Palermo, S. Pampanin, T. Smith, and F. Sarti. 2018b. “The implications of post-tensioning losses on the seismic response of Pres-Lam frames.” Bull. N. Z. Soc. Earthquake Eng. 51 (2): 57–69. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.51.2.57-69.
Green, M., and J. Taggart. 2017. Tall wood buildings: Design, construction and performance. Boston: Birkhauser.
Gutkowski, R., K. Brown, A. Shigidi, and J. Natterer. 2008. “Laboratory tests of composite wood–concrete beams.” Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (6): 1059–1066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.03.013.
Ho, T. X., T. N. Dao, S. Aaleti, J. W. van De Lindt, and D. R. Rammer. 2017. “Hybrid system of unbonded post-tensioned CLT panels and light-frame wood shear walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 143 (2): 04016171. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001665.
Holden, T., C. Devereux, S. Haydon, A. Buchanan, and S. Pampanin. 2016. “NMIT arts and media building—Innovative structural design of a three storey post-tensioned timber building.” Case Stud. Struct. Eng. 6 (Dec): 76–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csse.2016.06.003.
Hossain, A., I. Danzig, and T. Tannert. 2016. “Cross-laminated timber shear connections with double-angled self-tapping screw assemblies.” J. Struct. Eng. 142 (11): 04016099. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001572.
Hummel, J. 2016. “Displacement-based seismic design for multi-storey cross laminated timber buildings.” Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Kassel.
Iqbal, A., S. Pampanin, A. Palermo, and A. H. Buchanan. 2015a. “Performance and design of LVL walls coupled with UFP dissipaters.” J. Earthquake Eng. 19 (3): 383–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2014.987406.
Iqbal, A., T. Smith, S. Pampanin, M. Fragiacomo, A. Palermo, and A. H. Buchanan. 2015b. “Experimental performance and structural analysis of plywood-coupled LVL walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 142 (2): 04015123. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001383.
Izzi, M., D. Casagrande, S. Bezzi, D. Pasca, M. Follesa, and R. Tomasi. 2018. “Seismic behaviour of Cross-Laminated Timber structures: A state-of-the-art review.” Eng. Struct. 170 (Sep): 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.05.060.
Kelly, J. M., R. I. Skinner, and A. J. Heine. 1972. “Mechanisms of energy absorption in special devices for use in earthquake resistant structures.” Bull. N. Z. Soc. Earthquake Eng. 5 (3): 63–73.
Khan, F., and J. Sbarounis. 1964. Interaction of shear walls and frames in concrete structures under lateral loads. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Lauriola, M. P., and C. Sandhaas. 2006. “Quasi-static and pseudo-dynamic tests on XLAM walls and buildings.” In Proc., Cost E29 Int. Worshop on Earthquake Engineering on Timber Structures, European Cooperation in Science and Technology. Coimbra, Portugal: Univ. of Coimbra.
Loss, C., A. Hossain, and T. Tannert. 2018. “Simple cross-laminated timber shear connections with spatially arranged screws.” Eng. Struct. 173 (Oct): 340–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.07.004.
Mancini, M. J., and S. Pampanin. 2018. “Numerical and experimental investigation on low damage steel-timber post-tensioned beam-column connection.” In Proc., 16th European Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 1–12. Istanbul, Turkey: European Association for Earthquake Engineering.
McDonnell, E., and B. Jones. 2020. “Performance-based engineering provides path to more compelling mass timber projects.” Technol. Archit. Des. 4 (1): 9–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/24751448.2020.1705709.
Menegon, S. J., J. L. Wilson, N. T. Lam, and E. F. Gad. 2020a. “Experimental assessment of the ultimate performance and lateral drift behaviour of precast concrete building cores.” Adv. Struct. Eng. 23 (12): 2597–2613. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369433220919077.
Menegon, S. J., J. L. Wilson, N. T. K. Lam, and E. F. Gad. 2020b. “Experimental testing of innovative panel-to-panel connections for precast concrete building cores.” Eng. Struct. 207 (Mar): 110239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.110239.
Moroder, D., S. Pampanin, A. Palermo, T. Smith, F. Sarti, and A. Buchanan. 2017. “Diaphragm connections in structures with rocking timber walls.” Struct. Eng. Int. 27 (2): 165–174. https://doi.org/10.2749/101686617X14881932435574.
Moroder, D., T. Smith, A. Dunbar, S. Pampanin, and A. Buchanan. 2018. “Seismic testing of post-tensioned Pres-Lam core walls using cross laminated timber.” Eng. Struct. 167 (Jul): 639–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.02.075.
Newcombe, M. P., S. Pampanin, A. Buchanan, and A. Palermo. 2008. “Section analysis and cyclic behavior of post-tensioned jointed ductile connections for multi-story timber buildings.” Supplement, J. Earthquake Eng. 12 (S1): 83–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632460801925632.
Newcombe, M. P., S. Pampanin, and A. H. Buchanan. 2010a. “Global response of a two storey Pres-Lam timber building.” N. Z. Soc. Earthquake Eng. Conf. 8 (28): 8.
Newcombe, M. P., W. A. van Beerschoten, D. Carradine, S. Pampanin, and A. H. Buchanan. 2010b. “In-plane experimental testing of timber-concrete composite floor diaphragms.” J. Struct. Eng. 136 (11): 1461–1468. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000239.
Nguyen, T. T., T. N. Dao, S. Aaleti, K. Hossain, and K. J. Fridley. 2019. “Numerical model for creep behavior of axially loaded CLT panels.” J. Struct. Eng. 145 (1): 04018224. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002219.
Palermo, A. 2004. “Use of controlled rocking in the seismic design of bridges.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technical Institute of Milan.
Palermo, A., S. Pampanin, and A. H. Buchanan. 2006. “Experimental investigations on LVL seismic resistant wall and frame subassemblies.” In Proc., 1st European Conf. in Earthquake Engineering and Seismology. Red Hook, NY: Curran Associates.
Palermo, A., S. Pampanin, A. H. Buchanan, and M. P. Newcombe. 2005. “Seismic design of multi-storey buildings using laminated veneer lumber (LVL).” In Proc., New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering Conf. Christchurch, New Zealand: Univ. of Canterbury.
Palermo, A., F. Sarti, A. Baird, D. Bonardi, D. Dekker, and S. Chung. 2012. “From theory to practice: Design, analysis and construction of dissipative timber rocking post-tensioning wall system for Carterton Events Centre, New Zealand.” In Proc., 15th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 24–28. Lisbon, Portugal: Sociedade Portuguesa de Engenharia Sismica.
Pampanin, S., A. Palermo, and A. Buchanan. 2013. Post-tensioned timber buildings—Design guide Australia and New Zealand. Christchurch, New Zealand: Structural Timber Innovation Company.
Pampanin, S., M. J. N. Priestley, and S. Sritharan. 2001. “Analytical modelling of the seismic behaviour of precast concrete frames designed with ductile connections.” J. Earthquake Eng. 5 (3): 329–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632460109350397.
Pault, J., and R. Gutkowski. 1977. Tests and analysis of composite action in glulam bridges. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State Univ.
Pei, S., J. D. Dolan, R. B. Zimmerman, E. McDonnell, P. Line, and M. Popovski. 2019a. “From testing to codification: Post-tensioned cross laminated timber rocking post-tensioned rocking wall system.” In Proc., 52nd Int. Network on Timber Engineering Research, 1–14. Karlsruhe, Germany: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology.
Pei, S., J. W. van de Lindt, A. R. Barbosa, J. W. Berman, E. McDonnell, J. D. Dolan, H. E. Blomgren, R. B. Zimmerman, D. Huang, and S. Wichman. 2019b. “Experimental seismic response of a resilient 2-story mass-timber building with post-tensioned rocking walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 145 (11): 04019120. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002382.
Pei, S., J. W. van de Lindt, M. Popovski, J. W. Berman, J. D. Dolan, J. Ricles, R. Sause, H. Blomgren, and D. R. Rammer. 2016. “Cross-laminated timber for seismic regions: Progress and challenges for research and implementation.” J. Struct. Eng. 142 (4): E2514001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001192.
Pei, S., J. W. van de Lindt, J. Ricles, R. Sause, J. Berman, K. Ryan, J. D. Dolan, A. Buchanan, T. Robinson, and E. McDonnell. 2017. “Development and full-scale validation of resilience-based seismic design of tall wood buildings: The NHERI tallwood project.” In Proc., New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering Annual Conf. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering.
Pilon, D. S., A. Palermo, F. Sarti, and A. Salenikovich. 2019. “Benefits of multiple rocking segments for CLT and LVL Pres-Lam wall systems.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 117 (Feb): 234–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.11.026.
Popovski, M., J. Schneider, and M. Schweinsteiger. 2010. “Lateral load resistance of cross-laminated wood panels.” In Vol. 4 of Proc., WCTE 2010, 3394–3403. Riva del Garda, Italy: Trees and Timber Institute.
Priestley, M. J., S. S. Sritharan, J. R. Conley, and S. Pampanin. 1999. “Preliminary results and conclusions from the PRESSS five-story precast concrete test building.” PCI J. 44 (6): 42–67. https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011999.42.67.
Ranta-Maunus, A. 1975. “The viscoelasticity of wood at varying moisture content.” Wood Sci. Technol. 9 (3): 189–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00364637.
Sarti, F., A. Palermo, and S. Pampanin. 2016. “Quasi-static cyclic testing of two-thirds scale unbonded post-tensioned rocking dissipative timber walls.” J. Struct. Eng. 142 (4): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001291.
Smith, T., F. C. Ponzo, A. Di Cesare, S. Pampanin, D. Carradine, A. H. Buchanan, and D. Nigro. 2014. “Post-tensioned glulam beam-column joints with advanced damping systems: Testing and numerical analysis.” J. Earthquake Eng. 18 (1): 147–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2013.835291.
Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand. 2002. Structural design actions—Part 0: General principles. AS/NZS 1170.0. Wellington, New Zealand: Standards Australia.
Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand. 2016. Steel reinforcing materials. AS/NZS 3679. Wellington, New Zealand: Standards Australia.
Standards New Zealand. 1992. Steel Structures Standard. NZS 3404. Wellington, New Zealand: Standards New Zealand.
Standards New Zealand. 1993. Timber structures standard. NZS 3603. Wellington, New Zealand: Standards New Zealand.
Standards New Zealand. 2006. Concrete structures standard. NZS 3101. Wellington, New Zealand: Standards New Zealand.
Sullivan, K., T. H. Miller, and R. Gupta. 2018. “Behavior of cross-laminated timber diaphragm connections with self-tapping screws.” Eng. Struct. 168 (Aug): 505–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.04.094.
Tannert, T. 2019. “Design provisions for cross-laminated timber structures.” In Proc., Structures Congress 2019, 127–136. Reston, VA: ASCE.
van de Lindt, J. W., M. O. Amini, D. Rammer, P. Line, S. Pei, and M. Popovski. 2020. “Seismic performance factors for cross-laminated timber shear wall systems in the United States.” J. Struct. Eng. 146 (9): 04020172. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002718.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Structural Engineering
Volume 147 • Issue 3 • March 2021
Copyright
© 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Apr 1, 2020
Accepted: Sep 28, 2020
Published online: Dec 29, 2020
Published in print: Mar 1, 2021
Discussion open until: May 29, 2021
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.