Managing Postdisaster Reconstruction after the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal Earthquake and Lessons Learned
Publication: Natural Hazards Review
Volume 23, Issue 4
Abstract
The 2015 Gorkha earthquake was one of the most devastating earthquakes in Nepal in this century. Postdisaster reconstruction is a complex and highly challenging process, especially concerning developing countries like Nepal, as it involves several well-coordinated plans and working activities. Due to the large scale of devastation, the Nepal government created a separate body, the National Reconstruction Authority (NRA), to manage and oversee recovery and reconstruction activities. This paper briefly discusses organizations typically involved in postdisaster reconstruction processes and the multifaceted roles they play. Document analysis on research papers, collected reports from the NRA, governmental departments, and many other organizations involved in the reconstruction was carried out. This study provides a comprehensive review of the reconstruction process after the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, earthquake, whereas previous studies have covered a specific issue. The reconstruction works are presented structurally in detail. Similarly, the crucial steps and lesson learned for managing expectations and building back better are highlighted. This study may help to develop effective organization and policies in future postdisaster reconstruction.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
References
Abe, M., and R. Shaw. 2015. “Ten years of resettlement in eco-village, Sri Lanka.” In Recovery from the Indian ocean tsunami, 435–449. Berlin: Springer.
Acharya, P., K. Sharma, G. R. Pokharel, and R. Adhikari. 2022. “Reviewing the progress of reconstruction five years after the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, Nepal.” Build. Res. Inf. 50 (6): 595–609. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2022.2043139.
Audefroy, J. F. 2011. “Haiti: Post-earthquake lessons learned from traditional construction.” Environ. Urban. 23 (2): 447–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247811418736.
Barakat, S. 2003. “Housing reconstruction after conflict and disaster.” Humanitarian Policy Group 43 (4): 1–40.
Bowen, G. A. 2009. “Document analysis as a qualitative research method.” Qual. Res. J. 9 (2): 27–40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027.
Chapagain, N. K. 2008. “Heritage conservation in Nepal: Policies, stakeholders and challenges.” In Proc., 3rd Annual Himalayan Policy Research Conf. Albuquerque, NM: Nepal Study Center, The Univ. of New Mexico.
Chiaro, G., T. Kiyota, R. M. Pokhrel, K. Goda, T. Katagiri, and K. Sharma. 2015. “Reconnaissance report on geotechnical and structural damage caused by the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Nepal.” Soils Found. 55 (5): 1030–1043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2015.09.006.
CLPIU Building (Central Level Project Implementation Unit, Building). 2020a. “Manpower logistics landscape.” Accessed May 20, 2020. http://www.moudclpiu.gov.np/public/filesmanager/ManpowerLogistics-landscape.pdf.
CLPIU Building (Central Level Project Implementation Unit, Building). 2020b. “Reconstruction status.” Accessed April 25, 2020. https://ehrpinspection.nra.gov.np/inspection/reconstruction-status/.
CLPIU Education (Central Level Project Implementation Unit, Education). 2020. “CLPIU Education introduction.” Accessed April 25, 2020. http://www.moepiu.gov.np/content.php?id=39.
CLPIU GMALI (Central Level Project Implementation Unit, Grant Management and Local Infrastructure). 2020. “CLPIU GMALI introduction.” Accessed April 25, 2020. http://www.clpiugmali.gov.np/introduction.
Cochrane, H. 2008. The role of the affected state in humanitarian action: A case study on Pakistan. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Dalglish, S. L., H. Khalid, and S. A. McMahon. 2020. “Document analysis in health policy research: The READ approach.” Health Policy Plan 35 (10): 1424–1431. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czaa064.
Didier, M., S. Baumberger, R. Tobler, S. Esposito, S. Ghosh, and B. Stojadinovic. 2017. “Improving post-earthquake building safety evaluation using the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, Earthquake rapid visual damage assessment data.” Earthquake Spectra 33 (1): 415–438. https://doi.org/10.1193/112916eqs210m.
Dikmen, N. 2006. “Relocation or rebuilding in the same area: An important factor for decision making for post disaster housing projects.” In Proc., Int. Conf. and Student Competition on Post-Disaster Reconstruction Meeting Stakeholder Interests. Florence, Italy: Firenze University Press.
DUDBC (Department of Urban Development and Building Construction). 2019. “Design catalogue for reconstruction of earthquake-resistant houses.” Accessed December 15, 2019. https://www.dudbc.gov.np/uploads/default/files/0ef9f3598df115407ae9ed4e7bfab24a.pdf.
El-Masri, S., and G. Tipple. 2002. “Natural disaster, mitigation and sustainability: The case of developing countries.” Int. Plann. Stud. 7 (2): 157–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563470220132236.
Fagen, P. 2008. El Salvador: A case study in the role of the affected state in humanitarian action. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Gautam, D., and G. Cortes. 2021. “Reconstruction assistance in rural Nepal after the 2015 Gorkha Nepal earthquake through Aarma Parmah approach-A case study in Bijulikot, Ramechhap District.” Prog. Disaster Sci. 10 (18): 100148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2021.100148.
Ge, Y., Y. Gu, and W. Deng. 2010. “Evaluating China’s national post-disaster plans: The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake’s recovery and reconstruction planning.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Sci. 1 (2): 17–27. https://doi.org/10.3974/j.issn.2095-0055.2010.02.003.
Goda, K., T. Kiyota, R. Pokhrel, G. Chiaro, T. Katagiri, K. Sharma, and S. Wilkinson. 2015. “The 2015 Gorkha Nepal earthquake: Insights from earthquake damage survey.” Front. Built. Environ. 1 (8): 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2015.00008.
Hayles, C. S. 2010. “An examination of decision making in post disaster housing reconstruction.” Int. J. Disaster Resilience Built. Environ. 1 (1): 1026508. https://doi.org/10.1108/17595901011026508.
He, L. 2019. “Identifying local needs for post-disaster recovery in Nepal.” World Dev. 118 (Feb): 52–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.02.005.
Hendriks, E., and A. Opdyke. 2021. “Adoption of seismic-resistant techniques in reconstructed housing in the aftermath of Nepal’s 2015 Gorkha earthquake.” Earthquake Spectra 37 (4): 2662–2686. https://doi.org/10.1177/87552930211009530.
HERD (Health Research and Social Development Forum). 2016. “Nepal earthquake 2015: Sorrows to forget, lessons to remember.” Nepal earthquake memoire, special series. Accessed May 5, 2020. https://www.herd.org.np/publications/58.
HRRP (Housing Recovery and Reconstruction Platform). 2020. “HRRP bulletins.” Accessed May 12, 2020. https://www.hrrpnepal.org/hrrp-reference-library/hrrp-bulletins.
Hülssiep, M., T. Thaler, and S. Fuchs. 2021. “The impact of humanitarian assistance on post-disaster social vulnerabilities: Some early reflections on the Nepal earthquake in 2015.” Disasters 45 (3): 577–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12437.
ISDR (International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). 2005. Disaster statistics occurrence: Trends-century. Geneva: United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction.
Ishiwatari, M. 2021. “Institutional coordination of disaster management: Engaging national and local governments in Japan.” Nat. Hazard. Rev. 22 (1): 04020059. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000423.
Iuchi, K. 2014. “Planning resettlement after disasters.” J. Am. Plann. Assoc. 80 (4): 413–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2014.978353.
Jayasuriya, S., and P. McCawley. 2008. Reconstruction after a major disaster: Lessons from the post-tsunami experience in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute.
Jha, A. K. 2010. Safer homes, stronger communities: A handbook for reconstructing after natural disasters. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
KC, A., K. Sharma, and B. Pokharel. 2019a. “Performance of heritage structure during the Nepal earthquake of April 25, 2015.” J. Earthquake Eng. 23 (8): 1346–1384. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2017.1360225.
KC, A., K. Sharma, and B. Pokharel. 2019b. “Reconstruction of heritage structures in Nepal after 2015 Gorkha, Nepal earthquake.” In Proc., 12th Canadian Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Canadian Association for Earthquake Engineering.
Kotani, H., R. Honda, S. Imoto, L. Shakya, and B. K. Shrestha. 2020. “Transition of post-disaster housing of rural households: A case study of the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 44 (12): 101443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101443.
Lallemant, D., R. Soden, S. Rubinyi, S. Loos, K. Barns, and G. Bhattacharjee. 2017. “Post-disaster damage assessments as catalysts for recovery: A look at assessments conducted in the wake of the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, earthquake.” Earthquake Spectra 33 (1): 435–451. https://doi.org/10.1193/120316eqs222m.
Lam, L. M., and R. Kuipers. 2019. “Resilience and disaster governance: Some insights from the 2015 Nepal earthquake.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 33 (Oct): 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.10.017.
Lindell, M. K., and C. S. Prater. 2003. “Assessing community impacts of natural disasters.” Nat. Hazard. Rev. 4 (4): 176–185. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2003)4:4(176).
Liu, C., D. Fang, and L. Zhao. 2021. “Reflection on earthquake damage of buildings in 2015 Nepal earthquake and seismic measures for post-earthquake reconstruction.” Structures 30 (45): 647–658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2020.12.089.
Lizarralde, G. 2004. Organisational system and performance of post-disaster reconstruction projects. Montreal, QC, Canada: Univ. de Montreal.
Lizundia, B., R. A. Davidson, Y. M. Hashash, and R. Olshansky. 2017. “Overview of the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, earthquake and the earthquake spectra special issue.” Earthquake Spectra 33 (1): 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1193/120817eqs252m.
Lu, Y., and J. Xu. 2015. “Comparative study on the key issues of postearthquake recovery and reconstruction planning: Lessons from the United States, Japan, Iran, and China.” Nat. Hazards Rev. 16 (3): 04014033. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000172.
Miller, D. S., and J. D. Rivera. 2010. Community disaster recovery and resiliency: Exploring global opportunities and challenges. London: CRC Press.
Mumtaz, H., S. H. Mughal, M. Stephenson, and J. K. Bothara. 2008. “The challenges of reconstruction after the October 2005 Kashmir earthquake.” Bull. N. Z. Soc. Earthquake Eng. 41 (2): 68–82. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.41.2.68-82.
Nazara, S., and B. P. Resosudarmo. 2007. Aceh-Nias reconstruction and rehabilitation: Progress and challenges at the end of 2006. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute.
Neal, D. M., and B. D. Phillips. 1995. “Effective emergency management: Reconsidering the bureaucratic approach.” Disasters 19 (4): 327–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.1995.tb00353.x.
NPC (National Planning Commission). 2015. “Nepal earthquake 2015: Post disaster needs assessment.” Accessed June 5, 2020. https://www.npc.gov.np/images/category/PDNA_Volume_A.pdf.
NRA (National Reconstruction Authority). 2016. “Nepal earthquake 2015: Post disaster recovery framework 2016–2020.” Accessed May 23, 2020. https://www.undp.org/nepal/publications/post-disaster-recovery-framework-pdrf.
NRA (National Reconstruction Authority). 2017a. “Correction/Exception manual for masonry structure (2017).” Accessed May 26, 2020. https://www.nepalhousingreconstruction.org/sites/nuh/files/2017-06/correctionManual_.pdf.
NRA (National Reconstruction Authority). 2017b. “Repair and retrofitting manual for masonry structure (2017).” Accessed May 17, 2020. http://www.nra.gov.np/uploads/docs/Ue4u2KFqVd210221050749.pdf.
NRA (National Reconstruction Authority). 2019. “National reconstruction act and rules.” Accessed December 19, 2019. http://www.nra.gov.np/en/content/acts/0.
NRA (National Reconstruction Authority). 2020. “Visualization.” Accessed April 25, 2020. http://www.nra.gov.np/en/content/newsletter/.
NSC (National Seismological Center of Nepal). 2020. “Historical events.” Accessed April 20, 2020. http://www.seismonepal.gov.np/index.
Oliver-Smith, A. 2002. “Theorizing disasters: Nature, power, and culture.” In Catastrophe and culture: The anthropology of disaster, 23–47. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press.
Olshansky, R. B., L. D. Hopkins, and L. A. Johnson. 2012. “Disaster and recovery: Processes compressed in time.” Nat. Hazard. Rev. 13 (3): 173–178. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000077.
Ophiyandri, T., D. Amaratunga, C. Pathirage, and K. Keraminiyage. 2013. “Critical success factors for community-based post-disaster housing reconstruction projects in the pre-construction stage in Indonesia.” Int. J. Disaster Resilience Built. Environ. 2013 (Jul): 21. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDRBE-03-2013-0005.
Platt, S., D. Gautam, and R. Rupakhety. 2020. “Speed and quality of recovery after the Gorkha Earthquake 2015 Nepal.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 50 (20): 101689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101689.
Pribadi, K. S., D. Kusumastuti, S. A. Sagala, and R. Wimbardana. 2014. “Post-disaster housing reconstruction in Indonesia: Review and lessons from Aceh, Yogyakarta, West Java and West Sumatera earthquakes.” In Disaster recovery, 197–223. Berlin: Springer.
Price, G., and M. Bhatt. 2009. The role of the affected state in humanitarian action: A case study on India. Washington, DC: Humanitarian Policy Group.
Rawal, V., J. Bothara, P. Pradhan, R. Narasimhan, and V. Singh. 2021. “Inclusion of the poor and vulnerable: Learning from post-earthquake housing reconstruction in Nepal.” Prog. Disaster Sci. 10 (18): 100162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2021.100162.
Rieger, K. 2021. “Multi-hazards, displaced people’s vulnerability and resettlement: Post-earthquake experiences from Rasuwa district in Nepal and their connections to policy loopholes and reconstruction practices.” Prog. Disaster Sci. 11 (21): 100187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2021.100187.
Safapour, E., S. Kermanshachi, and A. Pamidimukkala. 2021. “Post-disaster recovery in urban and rural communities: Challenges and strategies.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 64 (21): 102535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102535.
Schneider, S. K. 1995. Flirting with disaster: Public management in crisis situations. New York: M. E. Sharpe.
Sharma, K., and L. Deng. 2019. “Reconnaissance report on geotechnical engineering aspect of the April 25, 2015, Gorkha, Nepal earthquake.” J. Earthquake Eng. 23 (3): 512–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2017.1342299.
Sharma, K., L. Deng, and D. Khadka. 2019. “Reconnaissance of liquefaction case studies in 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) earthquake and assessment of liquefaction susceptibility.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 13 (4): 326–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2017.1350338.
Sharma, K., L. Deng, and C. C. Noguez. 2016. “Field investigation on the performance of building structures during the April 25, 2015, Gorkha earthquake in Nepal.” Eng. Struct. 121 (Aug): 61–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.04.043.
Sharma, K., A. KC, and B. Pokharel. 2018. “Challenges for reconstruction after Mw 7.8 Gorkha earthquake: A study on devastated area of Nepal.” Geomatics Nat. Hazards Risk 9 (1): 760–790. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2018.1480535.
Sharma, K., M. Subedi, R. R. Parajuli, and B. Pokharel. 2017. “Effects of surface geology and topography on the damage severity during the 2015 Nepal Gorkha earthquake.” Lowland Technol. Int. 18 (4): 269–282.
Sinha, A. K. 2001. The Gujarat earthquake 2001. Kobe, Japan: Asian Disaster Reduction Center.
Steinberg, F. 2007. “Housing reconstruction and rehabilitation in Aceh and Nias, Indonesia-Rebuilding lives.” Habitat Int. 31 (1): 150–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2006.11.002.
Suppasri, A., et al. 2015. “A decade after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami: The progress in disaster preparedness and future challenges in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand and the Maldives.” Pure Appl. Geophys. 172 (12): 3313–3341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-015-1134-6.
Tafti, M. T., and R. Tomlinson. 2015. “Best practice post-disaster housing and livelihood recovery interventions: Winners and losers.” Int. Dev. Plann. Rev. 37 (2): 165–185. https://doi.org/10.3828/idpr.2015.14.
Thiruppugazh, V. 2014. “Post-disaster reconstruction and institutional mechanisms for risk reduction: A comparative study of three disasters in India.” In Disaster recovery, 17–39. Berlin: Springer.
USGS. 2020. “Earthquake events origin.” Accessed April 25, 2020. https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/.
Westoby, L., S. Wilkinson, and S. Dunn. 2021. “The road to recovery: Understanding the challenges affecting school reconstruction in rural Nepal following the 2015 Gorkha earthquake.” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 56 (12): 102120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102120.
Willitts-King, B. 2009. The role of the affected state in humanitarian action: A case study on Indonesia. London: Humanitarian Policy Group.
Yi, H., and J. Yang. 2014. “Research trends of post disaster reconstruction: The past and the future.” Habitat Int. 42 (12): 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2013.10.005.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Natural Hazards Review
Volume 23 • Issue 4 • November 2022
Copyright
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Aug 26, 2021
Accepted: Jun 8, 2022
Published online: Aug 17, 2022
Published in print: Nov 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Jan 17, 2023
ASCE Technical Topics:
- Architectural engineering
- Building management
- Business management
- Construction engineering
- Construction management
- Developing countries
- Disaster risk management
- Disasters and hazards
- Earthquakes
- Engineering fundamentals
- Geohazards
- Geotechnical engineering
- Government
- Information management
- Natural disasters
- Organizations
- Practice and Profession
- Reviews
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Prabin Acharya, Keshab Sharma, Indra Prasad Acharya, Rachana Adhikari, Seismic Liquefaction Potential of Fluvio-Lacustrine Deposit in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 10.1007/s10706-023-02387-8, (2023).