Effect of Nano- on Early-Age Properties and Cracking Potential of High-Strength Concrete
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 35, Issue 4
Abstract
The development of nanotechnology has facilitated the application of various nanomaterials in concrete over the past decade. Few investigations have characterized early-age properties and cracking potential of concrete with nanomaterials. The present study aimed to expand the limitation by means of an experiment campaign, including a mechanical properties test, free shrinkage measurement, and restrained ring test on high-strength concrete (HSC) with nano- (NC). The proportions of NC were 0%, 1%, 2%, and 3% by the mass of cement. The results showed that HSC demonstrated higher mechanical properties with 1% NC incorporated. Adding NC reduced the free and restrained shrinkage of HSC. Stress relaxation and tensile creep were evaluated in this paper. The established relationship between relaxation and creep coefficients was sensibly independent of NC proportions, which contributed to better estimating the stress level in HSC with NC, so as to better evaluate the cracking potential at early age.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during this study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The financial support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51879092) is gratefully acknowledged. The support of the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 2019B52814) is also gratefully acknowledged. This work is also sponsored by Qing Lan Project of Jiangsu Province of China.
References
AQSIQ (General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China). 2018. Common portland cement. GB 175-2007/XG1-2018. Beijing: Standard Press of China.
ASTM. 2018. Standard test method for determining age at cracking and induced tensile stress characteristics of mortar and concrete under restrained shrinkage. ASTM C1581-18. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bacciocchi, M., and A. M. Tarantino. 2020. “Modeling and numerical investigation of the viscoelastic behavior of laminated concrete beams strengthened by CFRP strips and carbon nanotubes.” Constr. Build. Mater. 233 (Feb): 117311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117311.
Balcikanli Bankir, M., M. Ozturk, U. K. Sevim, and T. Depci. 2020. “Effect of n- on fresh, hardened properties and acid resistance of granulated blast furnace slag added mortar.” J. Build. Eng. 29 (May): 101209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101209.
Bloom, R., and A. Bentur. 1995. “Free and restrained shrinkage of normal and high-strength concretes.” ACI Mater. J. 92 (2): 211–217. https://doi.org/10.14359/9771.
Briffaut, M., F. Benboudjema, J. M. Torrenti, and G. Nahas. 2011. “Numerical analysis of the thermal active restrained shrinkage ring test to study the early age behavior of massive concrete structures.” Eng. Struct. 33 (4): 1390–1401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2010.12.044.
Brooks, J. J., and A. M. Neville. 1976. “Relaxation of stress in concrete and its relation to creep.” J. Am. Concr. Inst. 73 (4): 227–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(76)90124-8.
Camiletti, J. 2013. “Effect of nano-calcium carbonate on early-age properties of ultra-high-performance concrete.” Mag. Concr. Res. 65 (5): 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.12.00015.
Camiletti, J., A. M. Soliman, and M. L. Nehdi. 2013. “Effects of nano- and micro-limestone addition on early-age properties of ultra-high-performance concrete.” Mater. Struct. Constr. 46 (6): 881–898. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-012-9940-0.
Cao, M., X. Ming, K. He, L. Li, and S. Shen. 2019. “Effect of macro-, micro- and nano-calcium carbonate on properties of cementitious composites—A review.” Materials 12 (5): 781. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12050781.
CEB-FIP (Comite Euro-international du Beton–Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte). 1990. Euro-international concrete committee. Model Code 1990. Lausanne, Switzerland: CEB-FIP.
Cheng, Z. Q., R. Zhao, Y. Yuan, F. Li, A. Castel, and T. Xu. 2020. “Ageing coefficient for early age tensile creep of blended slag and low calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 262 (Nov): 119855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119855.
Coussy, O., P. Dangla, T. Lassabatère, and V. Baroghel-Bouny. 2004. “The equivalent pore pressure and the swelling and shrinkage of cement-based materials.” Mater. Struct. Constr. 37 (1): 15–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02481623.
Darquennes, A., S. Staquet, and B. Espion. 2010. “Determination of time-zero and its effect on autogenous deformation evolution.” Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng. 15 (7): 1017–1029. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2011.9695290.
De Weerdt, K., M. B. Haha, G. Le Saout, K. O. Kjellsen, H. Justnes, and B. Lothenbach. 2011. “Hydration mechanisms of ternary Portland cements containing limestone powder and fly ash.” Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (3): 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2010.11.014.
Ding, Y., J. P. Liu, and Y. L. Bai. 2020. “Linkage of multi-scale performances of nano-CaCO3 modified ultra-high performance engineered cementitious composites (UHP-ECC).” Constr. Build. Mater. 234 (Feb): 117418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117418.
Du, H., S. Du, and X. Liu. 2014. “Durability performances of concrete with nano-silica.” Constr. Build. Mater. 73 (Dec): 705–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.10.014.
Elkhadiri, I., A. Diouri, A. Boukhari, J. Aride, and F. Puertas. 2002. “Mechanical behaviour of various mortars made by combined fly ash and limestone in Moroccan portland cement.” Cem. Concr. Res. 32 (10): 1597–1603. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00834-7.
Esping, O. 2008. “Effect of limestone filler BET(H2O)-area on the fresh and hardened properties of self-compacting concrete.” Cem. Concr. Res. 38 (7): 938–944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2008.03.010.
Gao, Y., J. Zhang, and P. Han. 2013. “Determination of stress relaxation parameters of concrete in tension at early-age by ring test.” Constr. Build. Mater. 41 (Apr): 152–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.004.
Grzeszczyk, S., K. Jurowski, K. Bosowska, and M. Grzymek. 2019. “The role of nanoparticles in decreased washout of underwater concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 203 (Apr): 670–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.118.
Grzybowski, M., and S. P. Shah. 1990. “Shrinkage cracking of fiber reinforced concrete.” ACI Mater. J. 87 (2): 138–148.
Herath, C., C. Gunasekara, D. W. Law, and S. Setunge. 2022. “Long term creep and shrinkage of nano silica modified high volume fly ash concrete.” J. Sustainable Cem. Mater. 11 (3): 202–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2021.1913660.
Holt, E. 2005. “Contribution of mixture design to chemical and autogenous shrinkage of concrete at early ages.” Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (3): 464–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.05.009.
Hosan, A., and F. U. A. Shaikh. 2020. “Influence of nano- addition on the compressive strength and microstructure of high volume slag and high volume slag-fly ash blended pastes.” J. Build. Eng. 27 (Jan): 100929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100929.
Hossain, A. B., B. Pease, and J. Weiss. 2003. “Quantifying early-age stress development and cracking in low water-to-cement concrete: Restrained-ring test with acoustic emission.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1834 (1): 24–32. https://doi.org/10.3141/1834-04.
Hossain, A. B., and J. Weiss. 2004. “Assessing residual stress development and stress relaxation in restrained concrete ring specimens.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 26 (5): 531–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(03)00069-6.
Huang, H., and G. Ye. 2017. “Examining the ‘time-zero’ of autogenous shrinkage in high/ultra-high performance cement pastes.” Cem. Concr. Res. 97 (Jul): 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.03.010.
Igarashi, S., A. Bentur, and K. Kovler. 2000. “Autogenous shrinkage and induced restraining stresses in high-strength concretes.” Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (11): 1701–1707. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00399-9.
Kanavaris, F., M. Azenha, M. Soutsos, and K. Kovler. 2019. “Assessment of behaviour and cracking susceptibility of cementitious systems under restrained conditions through ring tests: A critical review.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 95 (Jan): 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.10.016.
Kang, J., D. Shen, C. Li, M. Li, X. Wang, and H. Hu. 2022. “Effect of water-to-cement ratio on internal relative humidity and autogenous shrinkage of early-age concrete internally cured by superabsorbent polymers.” Struct. Concr. (Jan): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.202100488.
Khan, I., A. Castel, and R. I. Gilbert. 2017. “Tensile creep and early-age concrete cracking due to restrained shrinkage.” Constr. Build. Mater. 149 (Sep): 705–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.081.
Li, J., and Y. Yao. 2001. “A study on creep and drying shrinkage of high performance concrete.” Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (8): 1203–1206. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00539-7.
Li, L., M. Cao, and H. Yin. 2019. “Comparative roles between aragonite and calcite calcium carbonate whiskers in the hydration and strength of cement paste.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 104 (Nov): 103350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.103350.
Li, L., A. G. P. Dabarera, and V. Dao. 2020. “Time-zero and deformational characteristics of high performance concrete with and without superabsorbent polymers at early ages.” Constr. Build. Mater. 264 (Dec): 120262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120262.
Li, L., V. Dao, and P. Lura. 2021. “Autogenous deformation and coefficient of thermal expansion of early-age concrete: Initial outcomes of a study using a newly-developed temperature stress testing machine.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 119 (May): 103997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.103997.
Li, W., Z. Huang, F. Cao, Z. Sun, and S. P. Shah. 2015. “Effects of nano-silica and nano-limestone on flowability and mechanical properties of ultra-high-performance concrete matrix.” Constr. Build. Mater. 95 (Oct): 366–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.137.
Liu, X., L. Chen, A. Liu, and X. Wang. 2012. “Effect of nano-CaCO3 on properties of cement paste.” Energy Procedia 16 (Part B): 991–996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2012.01.158.
Ma, Y., X. Yang, J. Hu, Z. Zhang, and H. Wang. 2019. “Accurate determination of the ‘time-zero’ of autogenous shrinkage in alkali-activated fly ash/slag system.” Composites, Part B 177 (Nov): 107367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107367.
Meng, T., Y. Qiang, A. Hu, C. Xu, and L. Lin. 2017a. “Effect of compound nano-CaCO3 addition on strength development and microstructure of cement-stabilized soil in the marine environment.” Constr. Build. Mater. 151 (Oct): 775–781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.06.016.
Meng, T., Y. Yu, and Z. Wang. 2017b. “Effect of nano-CaCO3 slurry on the mechanical properties and micro-structure of concrete with and without fly ash.” Composites, Part B 117 (May): 124–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.02.030.
Menu, B., M. Jolin, and B. Bissonnette. 2017. “Studies on the influence of drying shrinkage test procedure, specimen geometry, and boundary conditions on free shrinkage.” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2017: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/9834159.
MOHURD (Ministry of Housing and Urban Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China). 2019. Standard for test methods of concrete physical and mechanical properties. GB/T 50081-2019. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press.
Moon, J. H., and J. Weiss. 2006. “Estimating residual stress in the restrained ring test under circumferential drying.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 28 (5): 486–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2005.10.008.
Nguyen, Q. P., L. H. Jiang, and Q. Zhu. 2010. “Assessment of early-age cracking of high-performance concrete in restrained ring specimens.” Water Sci. Eng. 3 (1): 113–120. https://doi.org/10.3882/j.issn.1674-2370.2010.01.012.
Passuello, A., G. Moriconi, and S. P. Shah. 2009. “Cracking behavior of concrete with shrinkage reducing admixtures and PVA fibers.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 31 (10): 699–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.08.004.
Pease, B., H. Shah, and J. Weiss. 2005. “Shrinkage behavior and residual stress development in mortar containing shrinkage reducing admixtures (SRAs).” Int. Concr. Abstr. Portal 227: 285–302.
Péra, J., S. Husson, and B. Guilhot. 1999. “Influence of finely ground limestone on cement hydration.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 21 (2): 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(98)00020-1.
Qian, K. L., T. Meng, X. Q. Qian, and S. L. Zhan. 2009. “Research on some properties of fly ash concrete with nano-CaCO3 middle slurry.” Key Eng. Mater. 405–406: 186–190. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.405-406.186.
Raoufi, K., J. Schlitter, D. Bentz, and J. Weiss. 2011. “Parametric assessment of stress development and cracking in internally cured restrained mortars experiencing autogenous deformations and thermal loading.” Adv. Civ. Eng. 2011: 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/870128.
Ravitheja, A., G. Pavan Kumar, and C. Madhu Anjaneyulu. 2021. “Impact on cementitious materials on high strength concrete: A review.” Mater. Today: Proc. 46 (1): 21–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.659.
Richardson, I. G. 1999. “Nature of C-S-H in hardened cements.” Cem. Concr. Res. 29 (8): 1131–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00168-4.
Salih, A., S. Rafiq, W. Mahmood, H. Al-Darkazali, R. Noaman, K. Ghafor, and W. Qadir. 2020. “Systemic multi-scale approaches to predict the flowability at various temperature and mechanical properties of cement paste modified with nano-calcium carbonate.” Constr. Build. Mater. 262 (Nov): 120777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120777.
Saradar, A., B. Tahmouresi, E. Mohseni, and A. Shadmani. 2018. “Restrained shrinkage cracking of fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete.” Fibers 6 (1): 12–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/fib6010012.
See, H. T., E. K. Attiogbe, and M. A. Miltenberger. 2003. “Shrinkage cracking characteristics of concrete using ring specimens.” ACI Mater. J. 100 (3): 239–245. https://doi.org/10.14359/12625.
See, H. T., E. K. Attiogbe, and M. A. Miltenberger. 2004. “Potential for restrained shrinkage cracking of concrete and mortar.” Cem. Concr. Aggregates 26 (2): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1520/CCA12305.
Shah, H. R., and J. Weiss. 2006. “Quantifying shrinkage cracking in fiber reinforced concrete using the ring test.” Mater. Struct. 39 (9): 887–899. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-006-9089-9.
Shaikh, F. U. A., and S. W. M. Supit. 2014. “Mechanical and durability properties of high volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete containing calcium carbonate (CaCO3) nanoparticles.” Constr. Build. Mater. 70 (Nov): 309–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.099.
Sharma, H., B. Majeed, and S. Sharma. 2020. “Influence of nano-modification on strength parameters of concrete.” Adv. Sustainable Constr. Mater. Geotech. Eng. 35: 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7480-7_8.
Shen, D. J., Z. Z. Feng, J. C. Kang, C. Y. Wen, and H. F. Shi. 2020a. “Effect of Barchip fiber on stress relaxation and cracking potential of concrete internally cured with super absorbent polymers.” Constr. Build. Mater. 249 (Jul): 118392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118392.
Shen, D. J., Z. Z. Feng, T. T. Zhang, X. J. Tang, and G. Q. Jiang. 2022a. “Estimating stress relaxation and cracking potential of high-strength concrete reinforced with polyvinyl alcohol fiber at early age.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 34 (9): 04022223. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004374.
Shen, D. J., Z. Z. Feng, P. F. Zhu, X. J. Tang, and G. Q. Jiang. 2020b. “Effect of pre-wetted lightweight aggregates on residual stress development and stress relaxation in restrained concrete ring specimens.” Constr. Build. Mater. 258 (Oct): 119151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119151.
Shen, D. J., C. C. Li, J. C. Kang, K. Q. Liu, M. Li, and C. Liu. 2022b. “Influence of loading ages on the tensile creep of internally cured high strength concrete at early age.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 34 (5): 04022064. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004207.
Shen, D. J., C. C. Li, M. Li, C. Liu, and J. C. Kang. 2022c. “Experimental investigation on correlation between autogenous shrinkage and internal relative humidity of superabsorbent polymer–modified concrete.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 34 (2): 04021456. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004099.
Shen, D. J., X. Z. Liu, B. Z. Zhou, X. Zeng, and J. Du. 2021. “Influence of initial cracks on the frequency of a 60-year-old reinforced-concrete box beam.” Mag. Concr. Res. 73 (3): 121–134. https://doi.org/10.1680/jmacr.18.00276.
Shen, D. J., X. Shi, S. S. Zhu, X. F. Duan, and J. Y. Zhang. 2016. “Relationship between tensile Young’s modulus and strength of fly ash high strength concrete at early age.” Constr. Build. Mater. 123 (Oct): 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.145.
Shen, D. J., X. Wang, and S. X. Wu. 2022d. “Determining hydration mechanisms for initial fall and main hydration peak in tricalcium silicate hydration using a two-scale hydration simulation model.” Cem. Concr. Res. 156: 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(11)00135-9.
Shen, Y., X. Ma, J. Huang, F. Hao, J. Lv, and M. Shen. 2020c. “Near-zero restrained shrinkage polymer concrete incorporating ceramsite and waste rubber powder.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 110 (Jul): 103584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2020.103584.
Tan, Y. Q., J. V. Smith, C. Q. Li, M. Currell, and Y. F. Wu. 2018. “Predicting external water pressure and cracking of a tunnel lining by measuring water inflow rate.” Tunnelling Underground Space Technol. 71 (Jan): 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2017.08.015.
Tran, N. P., C. Gunasekara, D. W. Law, S. Houshyar, S. Setunge, and A. Cwirzen. 2021. “A critical review on drying shrinkage mitigation strategies in cement-based materials.” J. Build. Eng. 38 (Jun): 102210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102210.
Wang, J. Y., C. Bian, R. C. Xiao, and B. Ma. 2019. “Restrained shrinkage mechanism of ultra high performance concrete.” KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 23 (10): 4481–4492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-019-0387-5.
Weiss, W. J., and S. P. Shah. 2002. “Restrained shrinkage cracking: The role of shrinkage reducing admixtures and specimen geometry.” Mater. Struct. 35 (2): 85–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02482106.
Wu, Z., K. H. Khayat, C. Shi, B. F. Tutikian, and Q. Chen. 2021. “Mechanisms underlying the strength enhancement of UHPC modified with nano- and nano-CaCO3.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 119 (May): 103992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.103992.
Wu, Z., C. Shi, and K. H. Khayat. 2018. “Multi-scale investigation of microstructure, fiber pullout behavior, and mechanical properties of ultra-high performance concrete with nano- particles.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 86 (Feb): 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.11.014.
Xia, Q., H. Li, T. Yao, A. Q. Lu, Q. Tian, and J. P. Liu. 2017. “Cracking behaviour of restrained cementitious materials with expansive agent by comprehensive analysis of residual stress and acoustic emission signals.” Adv. Cem. Res. 29 (2): 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1680/jadcr.16.00111.
Yang, L., and X. An. 2020. “Estimating the workability of self-compacting concrete in different mixing conditions based on deep learning.” Comput. Concr. 13 (6): 781–798. https://doi.org/10.12989/cac.2020.25.5.433.
Yoo, D. Y., N. Banthia, and Y. S. Yoon. 2015. “Effectiveness of shrinkage-reducing admixture in reducing autogenous shrinkage stress of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 64 (Nov): 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2015.09.005.
Yoo, D. Y., N. Banthia, and Y. S. Yoon. 2017. “Ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete: Shrinkage strain development at early ages and potential for cracking.” J. Test. Eval. 45 (6): 2061–2070. https://doi.org/10.1520/JTE20160114.
Yoo, D. Y., J. J. Park, S. W. Kim, and Y. S. Yoon. 2014. “Influence of ring size on the restrained shrinkage behavior of ultra high performance fiber reinforced concrete.” Mater. Struct. Constr. 47 (7): 1161–1174. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-013-0119-0.
Yoo, D. Y., I. You, G. Zi, and S. J. Lee. 2019. “Effects of carbon nanomaterial type and amount on self-sensing capacity of cement paste.” Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed. 134 (Feb): 750–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2018.11.024.
Zhang, J., Y. Gao, Y. Han, and J. Wang. 2017. “Evaluation of shrinkage induced cracking in early age concrete: From ring test to circular column.” Int. J. Damage Mech. 26 (5): 771–797. https://doi.org/10.1177/1056789515618531.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 35 • Issue 4 • April 2023
Copyright
© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jan 6, 2022
Accepted: Jul 13, 2022
Published online: Jan 19, 2023
Published in print: Apr 1, 2023
Discussion open until: Jun 19, 2023
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Zhizhuo Feng, Dejian Shen, Yueyao Luo, Quan Huang, Ziming Liu, Guoqing Jiang, Effect of polypropylene fiber on early-age properties and stress relaxation of ultra-high-performance concrete under different degrees of restraint, Journal of Building Engineering, 10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106035, 68, (106035), (2023).