Asserting the Applicability of Copper Slag and Fly Ash as Cemented Base Materials in Flexible Pavement from a Full-Scale Field Study
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 34, Issue 4
Abstract
This research made innovative use of copper slag and fly ash in the construction of a cemented base course of flexible pavement. A full-scale field study evaluated the structural and functional performance of flexible pavement test sections constructed using various combinations of copper slag and fly ash (Class F or Class C) with and without lime. Various performance parameters, namely deflection basin parameters, dissipated energy, back-calculated elastic modulus, service life ratio, and roughness index, were evaluated for flexible pavement test sections constructed with 250-mm-thick conventional granular base [wet-mix macadam (WMM)], 150-mm- and 250-mm-thick copper slag–Class F fly ash–lime (CFL) (70% copper slag Class F fly ash lime) and copper slag–Class C fly ash (CCF) (40% copper slag Class C fly ash) base layers. Falling weight deflectometer tests and bump integrator tests were performed in situ; laboratory tests, namely unconfined compression and resilient modulus tests, were performed on core samples. The average elastic moduli, back-calculated from six FWD tests conducted over 15 months after construction, for CCF and CFL base were 430 and 602 MPa, which are more than 3 times that of WMM. Significant waste utilization up to 1,348 tons of copper slag and 945 tons of fly ash per kilometer length of road can be achieved by using CCF and CFL mixes in base layers of flexible pavement with a service life ratio as high as 1.78 and cost efficiency of 17.4%.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, India (Grant No. DST/TSG/WM/2015/521/G) for funding this research. The authors also appreciate the Road and Building Department, Surat, Gujarat, India for the execution of test sections.
References
AASHTO. 2000. Determining the resilient modulus of soils and aggregate materials. AASHTO T 307. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
Al-Qadi, I., and A. K. Appea. 2003. “Eight-year field performance of secondary road incorporating geosynthetics at subgrade-base interface.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1849 (1): 212–220. https://doi.org/10.3141%2F1849-23.
Ameri, F., P. Shoaei, H. R. Musaeei, S. A. Zareei, and C. B. Cheah. 2020. “Partial replacement of copper slag with treated crumb rubber aggregates in alkali-activated slag mortar.” Constr. Build. Mater. 256 (Sep): 119468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119468.
ASTM. 2000. Nondestructive testing of pavements and backcalculation of moduli: Third Volume. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2020. Standard test method for measuring deflections with a lightweight deflectometer (LWD). ASTM E2583. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2009. Standard test methods for unconfined compressive strength of compacted soil-lime mixtures. ASTM D5102. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Bakare, M. D., R. R. Pai, S. Patel, and J. T. Shahu. 2019. “Environmental sustainability by bulk utilization of fly ash and GBFS as road subbase materials.” J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 23 (4): 04019011. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000450.
Barstis, W. F., and J. Metcalf. 2005. “Practical approach to criteria for the use of lime–fly ash stabilization in base courses.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1936 (1): 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198105193600103.
Bazi, G., R. Briggs, S. Saboundjian, and P. Ullidtz. 2015. “Seasonal effects on a low-volume road flexible pavement.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2510 (1): 81–89. https://doi.org/10.3141/2510-10.
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards). 2002. Classification and identification of soils for general engineering purposes. IS 1498. New Delhi, India: BIS.
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards). 2005. Determination of dry density of soils in place, by the sand replacement method. IS 2720 Part 28. New Delhi, India: BIS.
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards). 2010. Methods of sampling and test for quicklime and hydrated lime. IS 1514. New Delhi, India: BIS.
Chen, D.-H., J. Bilyeu, H.-H. Lin, and M. Murphy. 2000. “Temperature correction on falling weight deflectometer measurements.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1716 (1): 30–39. https://doi.org/10.3141/1716-04.
Das, B. M., A. J. Tarquin, and A. D. Jones. 1983. Geotechnical properties of copper slag. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Record.
Dawson, T. A., G. Y. Baladi, C. P. Sessions, and S. W. Haider. 2009. “Backcalculated and laboratory-measured resilient modulus values.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2094 (1): 71–78. https://doi.org/10.3141/2094-08.
Deblois, K., J.-P. Bilodeau, and G. Dore. 2010. “Use of falling weight deflectometer time history data for the analysis of seasonal variation in pavement response.” Can. J. Civ. Eng. 37 (9): 1224–1231. https://doi.org/10.1139/L10-069.
Donovan, P., and E. Tutumluer. 2009. “Falling weight deflectometer testing to determine relative damage in asphalt pavement unbound aggregate layers.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2014 (1): 12–23. https://doi.org/10.3141/2104-02.
FHWA (Federal Highway Administration). 1994. Pavement deflection analysis. Washington, DC: USDOT.
FHWA (Federal Highway Administration). 2015. National performance management measures: Assessing pavement condition for the national highway performance program and bridge condition for the national highway performance program. Washington, DC: USDOT.
Gupta, N., and R. Siddique. 2019. “Strength and micro-structural properties of self-compacting concrete incorporating copper slag.” Constr. Build. Mater. 224 (Nov): 894–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.105.
Gupta, N., and R. Siddique. 2020. “Durability characteristics of self-compacting concrete made with copper slag.” Constr. Build. Mater. 247 (Jun): 118580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118580.
Hall, K. T., M. I. Darter, T. E. Hoemer, and L. Khazanovich. 1997. LTPP data analysis—Phase I: Validation of guidelines for k-value selection and concrete pavement performance prediction. Technical Rep. Washington, DC: USDOT.
Havanagi, V. G., S. Mathur, P. S. Prasad, and C. Kamaraj. 2007. “Feasibility of copper slag–fly ash–soil mix as a road construction material.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1989 (1): 13–20. https://doi.org/10.3141/1989-43.
Havanagi, V. G., A. K. Sinha, S. Mathur, and P. Prasad. 2008. “Experimental study on the use of copper slag wastes in embankment and pavement construction.” In Proc., National Symp. on Engineering of Ground and Environmental Geotechnics, 259–264. Hyderabad, India: Jawaharlal Nehru Technological Univ.
IRC (Indian Road Congress). 2002. Rural roads manual. IRC SP 20. New Delhi, India: IRC.
IRC (Indian Road Congress). 2004. Guidelines for the surface evenness of highway pavements. IRC SP 16. New Delhi, India: IRC.
IRC (Indian Road Congress). 2012. Guidelines for the design of flexible pavements—Third revision. IRC 37. New Delhi, India: IRC.
IRC (Indian Road Congress). 2015. Guidelines for structural evaluation and strengthening of flexible road pavement using Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) technique. IRC 115. New Delhi, India: IRC.
IRC (Indian Road Congress). 2018. Guidelines for the design of flexible pavements—Fourth revision. IRC 37. New Delhi, India: IRC.
Johanneck, L., and S. Dai. 2013. “Responses and performance of stabilized full-depth reclaimed pavements at the Minnesota road research facility.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2368 (1): 114–125. https://doi.org/10.3141/2368-11.
Li, L., C. H. Benson, T. B. Edil, B. Hatipoglu, and O. Tastan. 2007. “Evaluation of recycled asphalt pavement material stabilized with fly ash.” In Proc., GeoDenver, 1–10. Reston, VA: ASCE.
McCullough, F. B., and A. Taute. 1985. Use of deflection measurements for determining pavement material properties, 8–14. Washington, DC: National Research Council.
Ministry of Rural Development. 2019. “Green technology in PMGSY.” Accessed August 20, 2020. https://rural.nic.in/press-release/green-technology-pmgsy.
Moghal, A. A. B. 2017. “State-of-the-art review on the role of fly ashes in geotechnical and geoenvironmental applications.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 29 (8): 04017072. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001897.
Mooney, M. A., and P. K. Miller. 2009. “Analysis of lightweight deflectometer test based on in situ stress and strain response.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 135 (2): 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2009)135:2(199).
Nassiri, S., M. H. Shafiee, M. R. H. Khan, and A. Bayat. 2015. “Evaluation of variation in unbound layers’ moduli and its effect on pavement design.” Int. J. Geotech. Eng. 9 (2): 140–149. https://doi.org/10.1179/1939787914Y.0000000040.
Nazzal, M. D., and L. N. Mohammad. 2010. “Estimation of resilient modulus of subgrade soils using falling weight deflectometer.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2186 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3141/2186-01.
NCHRP (National Cooperative Highway Research Program). 1976. Lime-fly ash-stabilized bases and subbases. Washington, DC: NCHRP.
NCHRP (National Cooperative Highway Research Program). 2003. Harmonized test methods for laboratory determination of resilient modulus for flexible pavement design. NCHRP 1-28A. Washington, DC: NCHRP.
Pai, R. R., M. D. Bakare, S. Patel, and J. T. Shahu. 2021. “Structural evaluation of flexible pavement with steel slag–fly ash–lime in base layer.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 33 (6): 04021097. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003711.
Park, B., S. Chun, and S. Han. 2019. “Application of falling weight deflectometer (FWD) data and energy ratio (ER) approach for cracking performance evaluation of asphalt pavements.” Int. J. Civ. Eng. 17 (11): 1729–1737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-019-00432-3.
Patel, S. 2016. “Experimental and numerical studies on utilization of some industrial wastes in flexible road pavements.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi.
Patel, S., and J. T. Shahu. 2016. “Resilient response and permanent strain of steel slag-fly ash-dolime mix.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 28 (10): 04016106. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001619.
Patel, S., and J. T. Shahu. 2017. “Comparative study of slags stabilized with fly ash and dolime for utilization in base course.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 29 (10): 04017168. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002017.
Patel, S., and J. T. Shahu. 2018. “Comparison of industrial waste mixtures for use in subbase course of flexible pavements.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 30 (7): 04018124. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002320.
Ping, V. W., Z. Yang, and Z. Gao. 2002. “Field and laboratory determination of granular subgrade moduli.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 16 (4): 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3828(2002)16:4(149).
Puppala, A. J., L. R. Hoyos, and A. K. Potturi. 2011. “Resilient moduli response of moderately cement-treated reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregates.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 23 (7): 990–998. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000268.
Saghafi, B., H. Al Nageim, and W. Atherton. 2013. “Mechanical behavior of a new base material containing high volumes of limestone waste dust, PFA, and APC residues.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25 (4): 450–461. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000517.
Saint-Laurent, D. 1995. “Structural assessment of flexible pavements in a northern climatic context.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Laval Univ.
Sarkar, R., S. M. Abbas, and J. T. Shahu. 2012. “A comparative study of geotechnical behavior of lime stabilized pond ashes from Delhi region.” Int. J. Geomate 3 (1): 273–279.
Shahu, J. T., S. Patel, and A. Senapati. 2012. “Engineering properties of copper slag–fly ash–dolime mix and its utilization in the base course of flexible pavements.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25 (12): 1871–1879. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000756.
Tanyu, B. F., W. H. Kim, T. B. Edil, and C. H. Benson. 2003. “Comparison of laboratory resilient modulus with back-calculated elastic moduli from large-scale model experiments and FWD tests on granular materials.” In Resilient modulus testing for pavement components, 191–208. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
USEPA. 1992. Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure. Washington, DC: USEPA.
Yan, Z., Z. Sun, J. Yang, H. Yang, Y. Ji, and K. Hu. 2021. “Mechanical performance and reaction mechanism of copper slag activated with sodium silicate or sodium hydroxide.” Constr. Build. Mater. 266 (1): 120900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120900.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 34 • Issue 4 • April 2022
Copyright
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Apr 6, 2021
Accepted: Jul 22, 2021
Published online: Jan 17, 2022
Published in print: Apr 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Jun 17, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Amrisha Khandelwal, Krishna Kumar Patel, Vishwajeet Pratap Singh, Volume Change Behavior of Amended Expansive Soil Using Sugarcane Bagasse Ash-Based Geopolymer, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-16294, 36, 4, (2024).
- M.D. Bakare, J.T. Shahu, S. Patel, Complete substitution of natural aggregates with industrial wastes in road subbase: A field study, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106856, 190, (106856), (2023).
- Kuldeep Sharma, Arvind Kumar, Performance evaluation of lime–cement–copper slag–rice husk ash composite as a pavement construction material, International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 10.1080/10298436.2022.2121833, (1-20), (2022).
- Rahul R. Pai, S. Patel, J. T. Shahu, Fatigue Response of Industrial Waste Mixes for Use as Cemented Base Materials in Flexible Pavement, International Journal of Geosynthetics and Ground Engineering, 10.1007/s40891-022-00407-w, 8, 5, (2022).