Experimental Study on Strength and Microstructure of Cemented Soil with Different Suctions
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 31, Issue 6
Abstract
The use of cement as curing agent to increase the strength of soft ground and reduce the deformation of soft soils has been widely adopted in soft soil engineering. The cemented soil is eventually exposed to the air, and becomes unsaturated in natural environments. This paper presents experimental studies, including suction control using a vapor equilibrium technique, unconfined compression strength tests, scanning electron microscope analysis, and mercury intrusion porosimetry tests, to investigate the influence of suction, cement content, and dry density on the strength and microstructure of unsaturated cemented soils. The experimental results show that unconfined compressive strength increases with increases in suction at the same dry density and the same cement content. The results also indicate that unconfined compressive strength decreases with decreases in dry density at the same cement content and the same suction. The microstructure study shows that, although strength increases with an increase in cement content, the hydration products of cement are seldom observed under high suction. The distribution of internal pores (micropores) in samples with different dry densities is almost the same, but distinct differences in the distribution of pores in aggregates (macropores) are observed.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored by the Australian Research Council (LP160100649 and IH180100010), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51679004, 51578427, 51508418, and 51808407), and the Zhejiang Province Public Welfare Technology Application Research Project (2015C33220).
References
Abell, A. B., K. L. Willis, and D. A. Lange. 1999. “Mercury intrusion porosimetry and image analysis of cement-based materials.” J. Colloid Interface Sci. 211 (1): 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcis.1998.5986.
ASTM. 2014. Standard test methods for moisture, ash, and organic matter of peat and other organic soils. ASTM D2974. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2016. Standard test method for unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil. ASTM D2166/D2166M. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Avsar, E., R. Ulusay, and H. Sonmez. 2009. “Assessments of swelling anisotropy of Ankara clay.” Eng. Geol. 105 (1): 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.12.012.
Bahar, R., M. Benazzoug, and S. Kenai. 2004. “Performance of compacted cement-stabilised soil.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 26 (7): 811–820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.01.003.
Bhattacharja, S., and J. I. Bhatty. 2003. Comparative performance of portland cement and lime stabilization of moderate to high plasticity clay soils. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association.
Consoli, N. C., D. Foppa, L. Festugato, and K. S. Heineck. 2007. “Key parameters for strength control of artificially cemented soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (2): 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:2(197).
Consoli, N. C., D. A. Rosa, R. C. Cruz, and A. D. Rosa. 2011. “Water content, porosity and cement content as parameters controlling strength of artificially cemented silty soil.” Eng. Geol. 122 (3): 328–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.05.017.
Consoli, N. C., R. A. Q. Samaniego, S. F. V. Marques, G. I. Venson, E. Pasche, and L. E. G. Velásquez. 2016a. “Single model establishing strength of dispersive clay treated with distinct binders.” Can. Geotech. J. 53 (12): 2072–2079. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0606.
Consoli, N. C., P. M. Vaz Ferreira, C.-S. Tang, S. F. Veloso Marques, L. Festugato, and M. B. Corte. 2016b. “A unique relationship determining strength of silty/clayey soils—Portland cement mixes.” Soils Found. 56 (6): 1082–1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2016.11.011.
Druss, D. L. 2003. “Guidelines for design and installation of soil-cement stabilization.” In Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Grouting and Ground Treatment ASCE, 527–539. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Du, Y. J., M. L. Wei, K. R. Reddy, Z. P. Liu, and F. Jin. 2014. “Effect of acid rain pH on leaching behavior of cement stabilized lead-contaminated soil.” J. Hazard. Mater. 271: 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.02.002.
Du, Y.-J., N.-J. Jiang, S.-L. Shen, and F. Jin. 2012. “Experimental investigation of influence of acid rain on leaching and hydraulic characteristics of cement-based solidified/stabilized lead contaminated clay.” J. Hazard. Mater. 225–226: 195–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.04.072.
Fall, M., J. C. Célestin, M. Pokharel, and M. Touré. 2010. “A contribution to understanding the effects of curing temperature on the mechanical properties of mine cemented tailings backfill.” Eng. Geol. 114 (3): 397–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.05.016.
Fall, M., and M. Pokharel. 2010. “Coupled effects of sulphate and temperature on the strength development of cemented tailings backfills: Portland cement-paste backfill.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 32 (10): 819–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2010.08.002.
Fredlund, D. G. 1989. “The character of the shear strength envelope for unsaturated soils.” In Proc., 12th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ICSMFE), 142–149. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Gallage, C., and T. Uchimura. 2016. “Direct shear testing on unsaturated silty soils to investigate the effects of drying and wetting on shear strength parameters at low suction.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (3): 04015081. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001416.
Gao, Y., D. A. Sun, and A. N. Zhou. 2016. “Hydromechanical behaviour of unsaturated soil with different specimen preparations.” Can. Geotech. J. 53 (6): 909–917. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0381.
Hein, L. R. O., K. A. Campos, P. C. R. O. Caltabiano, and K. G. Kostov. 2013. “A brief discussion about image quality and SEM methods for quantitative fractography of polymer composites.” Scanning 35 (3): 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/sca.21048.
Horpibulsuk, S., N. Miura, and T. S. Nagaraj. 2005. “Clay/water-cement ratio identity for cement admixed soft clays.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 131 (2): 187–192. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:2(187).
Horpibulsuk, S., R. Rachan, A. Chinkulkijniwat, Y. Raksachon, and A. Suddeepong. 2010. “Analysis of strength development in cement-stabilized silty clay from microstructural considerations.” Constr. Build. Mater. 24 (10): 2011–2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.03.011.
Kodikara, J., S. Barbour, and D. Fredlund. 1999. “Changes in clay structure and behaviour due to wetting and drying.” In Proc., 8th Australia New Zealand Conf. on Geomechanics: Consolidating Knowledge, 179. Hobart, Australia: Australian Geomechanics Society.
Lambe, T. 1958. “The structure of compacted clays.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 84 (2): 1–34.
Langroudi, A. A., and S. S. Yasrobi. 2009. “A micro-mechanical approach to swelling behavior of unsaturated expansive clays under controlled drainage conditions.” Appl. Clay Sci. 45 (1): 8–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2008.09.004.
Lawrence, G. 1978. “Stability of soil pores during mercury intrusion porosimetry.” J. Soil Sci. 29 (3): 299–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1978.tb00777.x.
Lawton, E. C., R. J. Fragaszy, and M. D. Hetherington. 1992. “Review of wetting-induced collapse in compacted soil.” J. Geotech. Eng. 118 (9): 1376–1394. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1992)118:9(1376).
Lin, B., A. B. Cerato, A. S. Madden, and M. E. Elwood Madden. 2013. “Effect of fly ash on the behavior of expansive soils: Microscopic analysiseffect of fly ash on expansive soils.” Environ. Eng. Geosci. 19 (1): 85–94. https://doi.org/10.2113/gseegeosci.19.1.85.
Lyu, H.-M., W.-J. Sun, S.-L. Shen, and A. Arulrajah. 2018. “Flood risk assessment in metro systems of mega-cities using a GIS-based modeling approach.” Sci. Total Environ. 626: 1012–1025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.138.
Mohammad, L., A. Raghavandra, and B. Huang. 2000. “Laboratory performance evaluation of cement-stabilized soil base mixtures.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1721 (1): 19–28. https://doi.org/10.3141/1721-03.
Reed, M., C. Lovell, A. Altschaeffl, and L. Wood. 1979. “Frost-heaving rate predicted from pore-size distribution.” Can. Geotech. J. 16 (3): 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1139/t79-052.
Ren, D.-J., S.-L. Shen, A. Arulrajah, and H.-N. Wu. 2018. “Evaluation of ground loss ratio with moving trajectories induced in double-O-tube (DOT) tunnelling.” Can. Geotech. J. 55 (6): 894–902. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0355.
Romero, E., and P. H. Simms. 2008. “Microstructure investigation in unsaturated soils: A review with special attention to contribution of mercury intrusion porosimetry and environmental scanning electron microscopy.” Geotech. Geol. Eng. 26 (6): 705–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-008-9204-5.
Russo, G., S. D. Vecchio, and G. Mascolo. 2007. Microstructure of a lime stabilised compacted silt, 49–56. Berlin: Springer.
Saba, S., J.-D. Barnichon, Y.-J. Cui, A. M. Tang, and P. Delage. 2014. “Microstructure and anisotropic swelling behaviour of compacted bentonite/sand mixture.” J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 6 (2): 126–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.01.006.
Shear, D. L., H. W. Olsen, and K. R. Nelson. 1992. Effects of desiccation on the hydraulic conductivity versus void ratio relationship for a natural clay. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Shen, S.-L., H.-N. Wu, Y.-J. Cui, and Z.-Y. Yin. 2014. “Long-term settlement behaviour of metro tunnels in the soft deposits of Shanghai.” Tunnelling Underground Space Technol. 40: 309–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2013.10.013.
Shen, S.-L., Y.-X. Wu, and A. Misra. 2017. “Calculation of head difference at two sides of a cut-off barrier during excavation dewatering.” Comput. Geotech. 91: 192–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2017.07.014.
Shen, S.-L., and Y.-S. Xu. 2011. “Numerical evaluation of land subsidence induced by groundwater pumping in Shanghai.” Can. Geotech. J. 48 (9): 1378–1392. https://doi.org/10.1139/t11-049.
Sheng, D., A. N. Zhou, and D. G. Fredlund. 2011. “Shear strength criteria for unsaturated soils.” Geotech. Geol. Eng. 29 (2): 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-009-9276-x.
Sills, I., L. Aylmore, and J. Quirk. 1973. “A comparison between mercury injection and nitrogen sorption as methods of determining pore size distributions 1.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 37 (4): 535–537. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1973.03615995003700040021x.
Tang, A.-M., and Y.-J. Cui. 2005. “Controlling suction by the vapour equilibrium technique at different temperatures and its application in determining the water retention properties of MX80 clay.” Can. Geotech. J. 42 (1): 287–296. https://doi.org/10.1139/t04-082.
Wu, H.-N., S.-L. Shen, and J. Yang. 2017. “Identification of tunnel settlement caused by land subsidence in soft deposit of Shanghai.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 31 (6): 04017092. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0001082.
Wu, Y.-X., H.-M. Lyu, J. S. Shen, and A. Arulrajah. 2018. “Geological and hydrogeological environment in Tianjin with potential geohazards and groundwater control during excavation.” Environ. Earth Sci. 77 (10): 392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7555-7.
Wu, Y.-X., S.-L. Shen, and D.-J. Yuan. 2016. “Characteristics of dewatering induced drawdown curve under blocking effect of retaining wall in aquifer.” J. Hydrol. 539: 554–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.05.065.
Xu, Y.-S., S.-L. Shen, Y. Lai, and A.-N. Zhou. 2018. “Design of sponge city: Lessons learnt from an ancient drainage system in Ganzhou, China.” J. Hydrol. 563: 900–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.06.075.
Xu, Y.-S., S.-L. Shen, D.-J. Ren, and H.-N. Wu. 2016. “Analysis of factors in land subsidence in Shanghai: A view based on a strategic environmental assessment.” Sustainability 8 (6): 573. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8060573.
Xu, Y.-S., H.-N. Wu, J. S. Shen, and N. Zhang. 2017. “Risk and impacts on the environment of free-phase biogas in quaternary deposits along the Coastal Region of Shanghai.” Ocean Eng. 137: 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2017.03.051.
Yao, Y., W. Hou, and A. Zhou. 2008. “Constitutive model for overconsolidated clays.” Sci. China Ser. E Technol. Sci. 51 (2): 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-008-0011-2.
Yao, Y. P., and A. N. Zhou. 2013. “Non-isothermal unified hardening model: A thermo-elastoplastic model for clays.” Geotechnique 63 (15): 1328–1345. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.13.P.035.
Yilmaz, Y., and V. Ozaydin. 2013. “Compaction and shear strength characteristics of colemanite ore waste modified active belite cement stabilized high plasticity soils.” Eng. Geol. 155: 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.01.003.
Zhang, J., D. A. Sun, A. N. Zhou, and T. Jiang. 2016. “Hydro-mechanical behavior of expansive soils with different suctions and suction histories.” Can. Geotech. J. 53 (1): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2014-0366.
Zhang, N., J. S. Shen, A. Zhou, and A. Arulrajah. 2018. “Tunneling induced geohazards in mylonitic rock faults with rich groundwater: A case study in Guangzhou.” Tunnelling Underground Space Technol. 74: 262–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2017.12.021.
Zhou, A., R.-Q. Huang, and D. Sheng. 2016. “Capillary water retention curve and shear strength of unsaturated soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 53 (6): 974–987. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0322.
Zhou, A., S. Wu, J. Li, and D. Sheng. 2018. “Including degree of capillary saturation into constitutive modelling of unsaturated soils.” Comput. Geotech. 95: 82–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2017.09.017.
Zhou, A. N., and D. Sheng. 2009. “Yield stress, volume change and shear strength behaviour of unsaturated soils: Validation of the SFG model.” Can. Geotech. J. 46 (9): 1034–1045. https://doi.org/10.1139/T09-049.
Zhou, A. N., and D. Sheng. 2015. “An advanced hydro-mechanical constitutive model for unsaturated soils with different initial densities.” Comput. Geotech. 63: 46–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2014.07.017.
Zhou, A. N., D. Sheng, S. W. Sloan, and A. Gens. 2012a. “Interpretation of unsaturated soil behaviour in the stress-saturation space. Part I: Volume change and water retention behaviours.” Comput. Geotech. 43: 178–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2012.04.010.
Zhou, A. N., D. Sheng, S. W. Sloan, and A. Gens. 2012b. “Interpretation of unsaturated soil behaviour in the stress-saturation space. Part II: Constitutive relationships and validations.” Comput. Geotech. 43: 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2012.02.009.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 31 • Issue 6 • June 2019
Copyright
©2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jun 14, 2018
Accepted: Dec 3, 2018
Published online: Mar 30, 2019
Published in print: Jun 1, 2019
Discussion open until: Aug 30, 2019
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.