Encapsulation Technology and Techniques in Self-Healing Concrete
Publication: Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 28, Issue 12
Abstract
Throughout concrete structures’ service life span, deterioration inevitably occurs. A typical phenomenon of deterioration in concrete structures is cracking, which affects durability and integrity of these structures. Repair and maintenance of concrete structures are labor and capital intensive; it can also be difficult to access the degree of damage after the construction is completed. Self-healing is a possible solution. An encapsulation strategy is widely considered as a versatile and effective strategy for self-healing. In this review, attention is focused one valuation of different healing agents and encapsulation techniques. Eight key factors that affect the effectiveness of self-healing by encapsulation are discussed; these are (1) robustness during mixing, (2) probability of cracks encountering the capsules, (3) curing time and condition, (4) effect of empty capsules on concrete strength, (5) controllability of release of healing agent, (6) stability of healing agent, (7) sealing ability and recovery of durability and strength of concrete matrix (as a result of self-healing), and (8) repeatability of self-healing action. Finally, gaps in current research and important areas for future research are identified.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
References
Abd-Elmoaty, A. E. M. (2011). “Self-healing of polymer modified concrete.” Alexandria Eng. J., 50(2), 171–178.
ACI (American Concrete Institute). (2007). “Causes, evaluation, and repair of cracks in concrete structures.” Farmington Hills, MI.
Aïssa, B., Therriault, D., Haddad, E., and Jamroz, W. (2012). “Self-healing materials systems: Overview of major approaches and recent developed technologies.” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2012, 17.
Asua, J. M. (2002). “Miniemulsion polymerization.” Prog. Polym. Sci., 27(7), 1283–1346.
Bang, S. S., Galinat, J. K., and Ramakrishnan, V. (2001). “Calcite precipitation induced by polyurethane-immobilized Bacillus pasteurii.” Enzyme Microb. Technol., 28(4), 404–409.
Bejan, A., Lorente, S., and Wang, K.-M. (2006). “Networks of channels for self-healing composite materials.” J. Appl. Phys., 100(3), 033528.
Blaiszik, B., Caruso, M., McIlroy, D., Moore, J., White, S., and Sottos, N. (2009). “Microcapsules filled with reactive solutions for self-healing materials.” Polymer, 50(4), 990–997.
Brown, E. N., White, S. R., and Sottos, N. R. (2005). “Retardation and repair of fatigue cracks in a microcapsule toughened epoxy composite—Part II: In situ self-healing.” Compos. Sci. Technol., 65(15), 2474–2480.
Cailleux, E., and Pollet, V. (2009). “Investigations on the development of self-healing properties in protective coatings for concrete and repair mortars.” Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Self Healing Materials, Chicago.
Clear, C. (1985). “The effects of autogenous healing upon the leakage of water through cracks in concrete.”, Slough, U.K.
Dakhil, F. H., Cady, P. D., and Carrier, R. E. (1975). “Cracking of fresh concrete as related to reinforcement.” ACI J., 72(8), 421–428.
De Rooij, M. R., Qian, S., Liu, H., Gard, W. F., and van de Kuilen, J. W. G. (2009). “Using natural wood fibers to self heal concrete.” Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting, Alexander et al., eds., Taylor and Francis, London, 123–124.
Dong, B., Wang, Y., Fang, G., Han, N., Xing, F., and Lu, Y. (2015). “Smart releasing behavior of a chemical self-healing microcapsule in the stimulated concrete pore solution.” Cem. Concr. Compos., 56, 46–50.
Dry, C. (1994a). “Matrix cracking repair and filling using active and passive modes for smart timed release of chemicals from fibers into cement matrices.” Smart Mater. Struct., 3(2), 118–123.
Dry, C. (2000). “Three designs for the internal release of sealants, adhesives, and waterproofing chemicals into concrete to reduce permeability.” Cem. Concr. Res., 30(12), 1969–1977.
Dry, C., Corsaw, M., and Bayer, E. (2003). “A comparison of internal self-repair with resin injection in repair of concrete.” J. Adhes. Sci. Technol., 17(1), 79–89.
Dry, C., and McMillan, W. (1996). “Three-part methylmethacrylate adhesive system as an internal delivery system for smart responsive concrete.” Smart Mater. Struct., 5(3), 297–300.
Dry, C. M. (1994b). “Smart multiphase composite materials that repair themselves by a release of liquids those become solids.” Proc., 1994 North American Conf. on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 2189, International Society for Optics and Photonics, SPIE, Washington, DC, 62–70.
Dry, C. M. (1996). “Smart earthquake-resistant materials: Using time-released adhesives for damping, stiffening, and deflection control.” Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Intelligent Materials, Vol. 2779, International Society for Optics and Photonics, SPIE, Washington, DC, 958–967.
Dry, C. M. (1999). “Repair and prevention of damage due to transverse shrinkage cracks in bridge decks.” Proc., 1999 Symp. on Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 3671, International Society for Optics and Photonics, SPIE, Washington, DC, 253–256.
Edvardsen, C. (1999). “Water permeability and autogenous healing of cracks in concrete.” ACI Mater. J., 96(4), 448–454.
Feng, X., et al. (2008). “Self-healing mechanism of a novel cementitious composite using microcapsules.” Proc., Int. Conf. on Durability of Concrete Structures, Zhejiang Univ., Hangzhou, China.
Fernandez, J. (2012). Material architecture, Taylor and Francis, Abingdon, U.K.
Granger, S., Loukili, A., Pijaudier-Cabot, G., and Chanvillard, G. (2007). “Experimental characterization of the self-healing of cracks in an ultra high performance cementitious material: Mechanical tests and acoustic emission analysis.” Cem. Concr. Res., 37(4), 519–527.
Gunawansa, A., and Kua, H. W. (2014). “A comparison of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies for the construction industries of three coastal territories.” Sustainable Dev., 22(1), 52–62.
Gunawansa, A., Lutchmeeduth, B., Kua, H. W., and Piana, V. (2010). “Approaches to climate change mitigation and adaptation—The cases of Mauritius and Singapore.” Univ. Mauritius Res. J., 17, 174–189.
Gupta, S. G., Rathi, C., and Kapur, S. (2013). “Biologically induced self healing concrete: A futuristic solution for crack repair.” Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol., 1(3), 85–89.
Hilloulin, B., Van Tittelboom, K., Gruyaert, E., De Belie, N., and Loukili, A. (2015). “Design of polymeric capsules for self-healing concrete.” Cem. Concr. Compos., 55, 298–307.
Huang, H., Ye, G., Leung, C., and Wan, K. (2011). “Application of sodium silicate solution as self-healing agent in cementitious materials.” Proc., Int. RILEM Conf. on Advances in Construction Materials Through Science and Engineering, RILEM Publications SARL, Bagneux, France, 530–536.
Huang, M., Jiang, L., Liaw, P. K., Brooks, C. R., Seeley, R., and Klarstrom, D. L. (1998). “Using acoustic emission in fatigue and fracture materials research.” JOM, 50(11), 1–14.
Jacobsen, S., Marchand, J., and Boisvert, L. (1996). “Effect of cracking and healing on chloride transport in OPC concrete.” Cem. Concr. Res., 26(6), 869–881.
Jacobsen, S., and Sellevold, E. J. (1996). “Self healing of high strength concrete after deterioration by freeze/thaw.” Cem. Concr. Res., 26(1), 55–62.
Jones, M., Zheng, L., and Newlands, M. (2002). “Comparison of particle packing models for proportioning concrete constitutents for minimum voids ratio.” Mater. Struct., 35(5), 301–309.
Jonkers, H. (2011). “Bacteria-based self-healing concrete.” Heron, 56(1/2), 1–12.
Jonkers, H., and Schlangen, E. (2009). “Towards a sustainable bacterially-mediated self healing concrete.” Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Self-Healing Materials, S. van der Zwaag, ed., Vol. 100, Springer, Netherlands.
Jonkers, H. M. (2007). “Self healing concrete: A biological approach.” Self-healing materials, Springer, Netherlands, 195–204.
Jonkers, H. M., Thijssen, A., van Breugel, K., Ye, G., and Yuan, Y. (2010). “Bacteria mediated remediation of concrete structures.” Proc., 2nd Int. Symp. on Service Life Design for Infrastructures, RILEM Publications SARL, Bagneux, France, 833–840.
Joseph, C., Jefferson, A., and Cantoni, M. (2007). “Issues relating to the autonomic healing of cementitious materials.” Proc., 1st Int. Conf. on Self-Healing Materials, Springer, Netherlands, 1–8.
Joseph, C., Jefferson, A., Isaacs, B., Lark, R., and Gardner, D. (2010). “Experimental investigation of adhesive-based self-healing of cementitious materials.” Mag. Concr. Res., 62(11), 831–843.
Jung, D. (1997). “Performance and properties of embedded microspheres for self-repairing applications.” Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL.
Kaltzakorta, I., and Erkizia, E. (2011). “Silica microcapsules encapsulating epoxy compounds for self-healing cementitious materials.” Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Self Healing Materials, Univ. of Bristol, Bristol, U.K., 27–29.
Kessler, M., Sottos, N., and White, S. (2003). “Self-healing structural composite materials.” Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manuf., 34(8), 743–753.
Kim, J., and Schlangen, E. (2011). “Self-healing in ECC stimulated by SAP under flexural cyclic load.” Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Self Healing Materials, Univ. of Bristol, Bristol, U.K., 27–29.
Kua, H. W. (2013a). “Attributional and consequential life cycle inventory assessment of recycling copper slag as building material in Singapore.” Trans. Inst. Meas. Control, 35(4), 510–520.
Kua, H. W. (2013b). “The consequences of substituting sand with used copper slag in construction.” J. Ind. Ecol., 17(6), 869–879.
Kua, H. W. (2015). “Integrated policies to promote sustainable use of steel slag for construction—A consequential life cycle embodied energy and greenhouse gas emission perspective.” Energy Build., 101, 133–143.
Kua, H. W., and Ashford, N. A. (2004). “Co-optimisation through increasing willingness, opportunity and capacity: A generalisable concept of appropriate technology transfer.” Int. J. Technol. Trans. Commercialisation, 3(3), 324–334.
Kua, H. W., and Gunawansa, A. (2010). “A multi-scale analysis of possible conflicts between climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives in the building industry and human settlement.” Prog. Ind. Ecol., Int. J., 7(3), 219–238.
Kua, H. W., and Kamath, S. (2014). “An attributional and consequential life cycle assessment of substituting concrete with bricks.” J. Cleaner Prod., 81, 190–200.
Kua, H. W., and Koh, S. (2012). “Sustainability science integrated policies promoting interaction-based building design concept as a climate change adaptation strategy for Singapore and beyond.” Green growth: Managing the transition to a sustainable economy, Springer, Netherlands, 65–85.
Kua, H. W., and Maghimai Raj, M. M. A. (2016). “Steel-versus-concrete debate revisited—Global warming potential and embodied energy analyses based on an attributional and consequential life cycle perspective.” J. Ind. Ecol., in press.
Kuang, Y.-C., and Ou, J.-P. (2008). “Passive smart self-repairing concrete beams by using shape memory alloy wires and fibers containing adhesives.” J. Central South Univ. Technol., 15(3), 411–417.
Lee, H., Wong, H., and Buenfeld, N. (2010). “Potential of superabsorbent polymer for self-sealing cracks in concrete.” Adv. Appl. Ceram., 109(5), 296–302.
Li, M., and Li, V. C. (2011). “Cracking and healing of engineered cementitious composites under chloride environment.” ACI Mater. J., 108(3), 333–340.
Li, V. C., Lim, Y. M., and Chan, Y.-W. (1998). “Feasibility study of a passive smart self-healing cementitious composite.” Compos. Part B: Eng., 29(6), 819–827.
Li, W., Jiang, Z., Yang, Z., Zhao, N., and Yuan, W. (2013). “Self-healing efficiency of cementitious materials containing microcapsules filled with healing adhesive: Mechanical restoration and healing process monitored by water absorption.” PloS One, 8(11), 1–8.
Liu, H., et al. (2009a). “Self-healing of concrete cracks using hollow plant fibres.” Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Self-Healing Materials, Chicago.
Liu, X., Sheng, X., Lee, J. K., and Kessler, M. R. (2009b). “Synthesis and characterization of melamine-urea-formaldehyde microcapsules containing ENB-based self-healing agents.” Macromol. Mater. Eng., 294(6–7), 389–395.
Lv, Z., and Chen, H. (2013). “Analytical models for determining the dosage of capsules embedded in self-healing materials.” Comput. Mater. Sci., 68, 81–89.
Maes, M., Van Tittelboom, K., and De Belie, N. (2014). “The efficiency of self-healing cementitious materials by means of encapsulated polyurethane in chloride containing environments.” Constr. Build. Mater., 71, 528–537.
Mihashi, H., Kaneko, Y., Nishiwaki, T., and Otsuka, K. (2001). “Fundamental study on development of intelligent concrete characterized by self-healing capability for strength.” Trans. Jpn. Concr. Inst., 22, 441–450.
Mookhoek, S. D. (2010). “Novel routes to liquid-based self-healing polymer systems.” Ph.D. dissertation, Delft Univ. of Technology, Delft, Netherlands.
Mookhoek, S. D., Fischer, H. R., and van der Zwaag, S. (2009). “A numerical study into the effects of elongated capsules on the healing efficiency of liquid-based systems.” Comput. Mater. Sci., 47(2), 506–511.
Na, S. H., Hama, Y., Taniguchi, M., Katsura, O., Sagawa, T., and Zakaria, M. (2012). “Experimental investigation on reaction rate and self-healing ability in fly ash blended cement mixtures.” J. Adv. Concr. Technol., 10(7), 240–253.
Neville, A. (2002). “Autogenous healing: A concrete miracle?” Concr. Int., 24(11), 76–82.
Ng, P. K., and Mithraratne, N. (2014). “Lifetime performance of semi-transparent building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) glazing systems in the tropics.” Renew. Sustainable Energy Rev., 31, 736–745.
Ngala, V., and Page, C. (1997). “Effects of carbonation on pore structure and diffusional properties of hydrated cement pastes.” Cem. Concr. Res., 27(7), 995–1007.
Nijland, T. G., Larbi, J. A., van Hees, R. P., Lubelli, B., and de Rooij, M. (2007). “Self healing phenomena in concretes and masonry mortars: A microscopic study.” Proc., 1st Int. Conf. on Self Healing Materials, Springer, Netherlands, 1–9.
Nishiwaki, T., Mihashi, H., Miura, K., and Jang, B. (2006). “Thermal analysis of self-healing concrete system.” Cem. Sci. Concr. Technol., 59(2005), 469–476.
Pang, S., and Diep, T. (2011). “ST: Self-healing concrete structural elements.” Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Self-Healing Materials, Univ. of Bristol, Bristol, U.K., 322–323.
Pelletier, M., Brown, R., Shukla, A., and Bose, A. (2011). “Self-healing concrete with a microencapsulated healing agent.”, Univ. of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI.
Privman, V., Dementsov, A., and Sokolov, I. (2007). “Modeling of self-healing polymer composites reinforced with nanoporous glass fibers.” J. Comput. Theor. Nanosci., 4(1), 190–193.
Qian, S., Zhou, J., De Rooij, M., Schlangen, E., Ye, G., and Van Breugel, K. (2009). “Self-healing behavior of strain hardening cementitious composites incorporating local waste materials.” Cem. Concr. Compos., 31(9), 613–621.
Ramachandran, S. K., Ramakrishnan, V., and Bang, S. S. (2001). “Remediation of concrete using microorganisms.” ACI Mater. J., 98(1), 3–9.
Ramachandran, V. S., and Beaudoin, J. J. (2000). Handbook of analytical techniques in concrete science and technology: Principles, techniques and applications, William Andrew, New York.
Ramachandran, V. S., Paroli, R. M., Beaudoin, J. J., and Delgado, A. H. (2002). Handbook of thermal analysis of construction materials, William Andrew, New York.
Ramm, W., and Biscoping, M. (1998). “Autogenous healing and reinforcement corrosion of water-penetrated separation cracks in reinforced concrete.” Nucl. Eng. Des., 179(2), 191–200.
Reynolds, D., Browning, J., and Darwin, D. (2009). “Lightweight aggregates as an internal curing agent for low-cracking high-performance concrete.” Proc., Masters Abstracts Int., Univ. Microfilms Int., Ann Arbor, MI.
Rimmelé, G., Barlet-Gouédard, V., Porcherie, O., Goffé, B., and Brunet, F. (2008). “Heterogeneous porosity distribution in Portland cement exposed to CO 2-rich fluids.” Cem. Concr. Res., 38(8), 1038–1048.
Şahmaran, M., Keskin, S. B., Ozerkan, G., and Yaman, I. O. (2008). “Self-healing of mechanically-loaded self consolidating concretes with high volumes of fly ash.” Cem. Concr. Compos., 30(10), 872–879.
Sisomphon, K., Copuroglu, O., and Fraaij, A. (2011a). “Application of encapsulated lightweight aggregate impregnated with sodium mono-fluorophosphate as a self-healing agent in blast furnace slag mortar.” Heron, 56(1/2), 13–32.
Sisomphon, K., Copuroglu, O., Leung, C., and Wan, K. (2011b). “Self-healing mortars by using different cementitious materials.” Proc., Int. RILEM Conf. on Advances in Construction Materials through Science and Engineering, RILEM Publications SARL, Bagneux, France, 545–552.
Snoeck, D., Van Tittelboom, K., Steuperaert, S., Dubruel, P., and De Belie, N. (2013). “Self-healing cementitious materials by the combination of microfibres and superabsorbent polymers.” J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., 25(1), 13–24.
Song, H.-W., and Kwon, S.-J. (2007). “Permeability characteristics of carbonated concrete considering capillary pore structure.” Cem. Concr. Res., 37(6), 909–915.
Song, P., and Hwang, S. (2004). “Mechanical properties of high-strength steel fiber-reinforced concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater., 18(9), 669–673.
St John, D. A., Poole, A. B., and Sims, I. (1998). Concrete petrography: A handbook of investigative techniques, Arnold, London.
Sun, L., Yu, W. Y., and Ge, Q. (2011). “Experimental research on the self-healing performance of micro-cracks in concrete bridge.” Adv. Mater. Res., 250, 28–32.
Ter Heide, N. (2005). “Crack healing in hydrating concrete.” Master’s dissertation, Delft Univ. of Technology, Delft, Netherlands.
Ter Heide, N., and Schlangen, E. (2007). “Self-healing of early age cracks in concrete.” Proc., 1st Int. Conf. on Self Healing Materials, Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
Ter Heide, N., Schlangen, E., and Van Breugel, K. (2005). “Experimental study of crack healing of early age cracks.” Proc., Knud Hojgaard Conf., DTU Byg, Tech. Univ. of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark.
Termkhajornkit, P., Nawa, T., Yamashiro, Y., and Saito, T. (2009). “Self-healing ability of fly ash-cement systems.” Cem. Concr. Compos., 31(3), 195–203.
Thao, T. D. P. (2011). “Quasi-Brittle self-healing materials: Numerical modelling and applications in civil engineering.” Ph.D. dissertation, National Univ. of Singapore, Singapore.
Thao, T. D. P., Johnson, T. J. S., Tong, Q. S., and Dai, P. S. (2009). “Implementation of self-healing in concrete-proof of concept.” IES J. Part A: Civ. Struct. Eng., 2(2), 116–125.
Van Breugel, K. (2007). “Is there a market for self-healing cement-based materials.” Proc., 1st Int. Conf. on Self-Healing Materials, Springer, Netherlands.
Van Dam, T. J. (2005). “Guidelines for early-opening-to-traffic portland cement concrete for pavement rehabilitation.”, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
van der Zwaag, S. (2007). “An introduction to material design principles: Damage prevention versus damage management.” Self healing materials, Springer, Netherlands, 1–18.
Van Tittelboom, K., et al. (2016). “Comparison of different approaches for self-healing concrete in a large-scale lab test.” Constr. Build. Mater., 107, 125–137.
Van Tittelboom, K., Adesanya, K., Dubruel, P., Van Puyvelde, P., and De Belie, N. (2011a). “Methyl methacrylate as a healing agent for self-healing cementitious materials.” Smart Mater. Struct., 20(12), 125016.
Van Tittelboom, K., and De Belie, N. (2010). “Self-healing concrete: Suitability of different healing agents.” Int. J. 3R’s, 1(1), 12–21.
Van Tittelboom, K., and De Belie, N. (2013). “Self-healing in cementitious materials—A review.” Materials, 6(6), 2182–2217.
Van Tittelboom, K., De Belie, N., Lehmann, F., and Grosse, C. U. (2012). “Acoustic emission analysis for the quantification of autonomous crack healing in concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater., 28(1), 333–341.
Van Tittelboom, K., De Belie, N., Van Loo, D., and Jacobs, P. (2011b). “Self-healing efficiency of cementitious materials containing tubular capsules filled with healing agent.” Cem. Concr. Compos., 33(4), 497–505.
Van Tittelboom, K., Tsangouri, E., Van Hemelrijck, D., and De Belie, N. (2015). “The efficiency of self-healing concrete using alternative manufacturing procedures and more realistic crack patterns.” Cem. Concr. Compos., 57, 142–152.
Waiching, T., Kardani, O., and Cui, H. (2015). “Robust evaluation of self-healing efficiency in cementitious materials—A review.” Constr. Build. Mater., 81, 233–247.
Wang, J., et al. (2015). “Application of modified-alginate encapsulated carbonate producing bacteria in concrete: A promising strategy for crack self-healing.” Front. Microbiol., 33(125016), 1088.
Wang, J., De Belie, N., and Verstraete, W. (2012a). “Diatomaceous earth as a protective vehicle for bacteria applied for self-healing concrete.” J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 39(4), 567–577.
Wang, J., Snoeck, D., Van Vlierberghe, S., Verstraete, W., and De Belie, N. (2014a). “Application of hydrogel encapsulated carbonate precipitating bacteria for approaching a realistic self-healing in concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater., 68, 110–119.
Wang, J., Soens, H., Verstraete, W., and De Belie, N. (2014b). “Self-healing concrete by use of microencapsulated bacterial spores.” Cem. Concr. Res., 56, 139–152.
Wang, J., Van Tittelboom, K., De Belie, N., and Verstraete, W. (2012b). “Use of silica gel or polyurethane immobilized bacteria for self-healing concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater., 26(1), 532–540.
White, S. R., et al. (2001). “Autonomic healing of polymer composites.” Nature, 409(6822), 794–797.
Wiktor, V., and Jonkers, H. M. (2011a). “Assessment of the crack healing capacity in bacteria-based self-healing concrete.” Proc., ICSHM 2011: 3rd Int. Conf. on Self-Healing Materials, Univ. of Bristol, Bristol, U.K.
Wiktor, V., and Jonkers, H. M. (2011b). “Quantification of crack-healing in novel bacteria-based self-healing concrete.” Cem. Concr. Compos., 33(7), 763–770.
Yang, Y., Lepech, M. D., Yang, E.-H., and Li, V. C. (2009). “Autogenous healing of engineered cementitious composites under wet-dry cycles.” Cem. Concr. Res., 39(5), 382–390.
Yang, Z., Hollar, J., He, X., and Shi, X. (2010). “Laboratory assessment of a self-healing cementitious composite.” Transp. Res. Rec., 2142(1), 9–17.
Yang, Z., Hollar, J., He, X., and Shi, X. (2011). “A self-healing cementitious composite using oil core/silica gel shell microcapsules.” Cem. Concr. Compos., 33(4), 506–512.
Zemskov, S. V., Jonkers, H. M., and Vermolen, F. J. (2011). “Two analytical models for the probability characteristics of a crack hitting encapsulated particles: Application to self-healing materials.” Comput. Mater. Sci., 50(12), 3323–3333.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
Volume 28 • Issue 12 • December 2016
Copyright
© 2016 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Sep 25, 2015
Accepted: May 12, 2016
Published online: Jul 15, 2016
Published in print: Dec 1, 2016
Discussion open until: Dec 15, 2016
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.