PIV-PLIF Characterization of Nonconfined Saline Density Currents under Different Flow Conditions
Publication: Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
Volume 144, Issue 9
Abstract
Saline density currents are a growing environmental concern due to their increasing occurrence generated by brine discharges. The present paper shows an experimental global characterization of the quasi-steady-flow properties of nonconfined saline currents using nonintrusive particle image velocimetry (PIV) and planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) techniques. This global characterization includes the study of the influence of the bottom slope and the initial flow conditions such as the flow rate, the thickness, and the saline concentration on the plume behavior. The results achieved reveal the self-similarity of the mean variables’ vertical profiles and the collapse of higher length scales of turbulence along the density currents. In addition, this study finds the existence of a normal flow state from which the vertical mixing becomes the main mixing mechanism in the plane of symmetry of the currents. Finally, a comparison between widespread numerical integral approximations and the measured data reveals that these approximations need to be reformulated. The high-quality database presented in this study is a key tool for future calibration and validation of different numerical approximations.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
The database generated is included in the figures and tables, and other data used are available in the cited references. Data generated or analyzed during the study are also available from the corresponding author by request.
Acknowledgments
This work has been partially funded by the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under Research Project TRA2011-28900 (PLVMA3D). B. Pérez-Díaz would like to thank MINECO for the funding under the FPI Program (research fellowship, Reference No. BES-2012-053693) to undertake a predoctoral research stay (Reference No. EEBB-I-16-11764) in the Hydrodynamics and Metocean group of the Research and Development () center at HR Wallingford. Special thanks go to Matthew Wood and Florece Henno for their support and contributions.
References
Adduce, C., G. Sciortino, and S. Proietti. 2012. “Gravity currents produced by lock exchanges: Experiments and simulations with a two-layer shallow-water model with entrainment.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 138 (2): 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0000484.
Alavian, V. 1986. “Behavior of density currents on an incline.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 112 (1): 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1986)112:1(27).
Ashida, K., and S. Egashira. 1975. “Basic study on turbidity currents.” Proc. Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng. 1975 (237): 37–50. https://doi.org/10.2208/jscej1969.1975.237_37.
Birman, V., J. Margin, and E. Meigurg. 2005. “The non-Boussinesq lock-exchange problem. Part 2: High-resolution simulations.” J. Fluid Mech. 537 (1): 125–144. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112005005033.
Bleninger, T. 2006. “Coupled 3D hydrodynamic models for submarine outfalls: Environmental hydraulic design and control for multiport diffusers.” Ph.D. thesis, Institute for Hydromechanics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Univ. of Karlsruhe.
Britter, R. E. 1979. “The spread of a negatively buoyant plume in a calm environment.” Atmos. Environ. Part A 13 (9): 1241–1247. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(79)90078-7.
Britter, R. E., and J. E. Simpson. 1978. “Experiments on the dynamics of a gravity current head.” J. Fluid Mech. 88 (2): 223. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112078002074.
Buckee, C., B. C. Kneller, and J. Peakall. 2009. “Turbulence structure in steady, solute-driven gravity currents: Experimental approaches.” Particulate gravity currents, edited by W. McCaffrey, B. Kneller, and J. Peakall, 173–187. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Cantero, M. I., S. Balachandar, M. H. Garcia, and J. P. Ferry. 2006. “Direct numerical simulations of planar and cylindrical density currents.” J. Appl. Mech. 73 (6): 923. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2173671.
Cantero, M. I., J. R. Lee, S. Balachadar, and M. H. Garcia. 2007. “On the front velocity of gravity currents.” J. Fluid Mech. 586 (6): 1. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112007005769.
Cenedese, C., and C. Adduce. 2008. “Mixing in a density-driven current flowing down a slope in a rotating fluid.” J. Fluid Mech. 604 (Jun): 369–388. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112008001237.
Cenedese, C., and C. Adduce. 2010. “A new parameterization for entrainment in overflows.” J. Phys. Oceanogr. 40 (8): 1835–1850. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JPO4374.1.
Cenedese, C., J. A. Whitehead, T. A. Ascarelli, and M. Ohiwa. 2004. “A dense current flowing down a sloping bottom in a rotating fluid.” J. Phys. Oceanogr. 34 (1): 188–203. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2004)034%3C0188:ADCFDA%3E2.0.CO;2.
Choi, S.-U., and M. H. Garcia. 2001. “Spreading of gravity plumes on an incline.” Coastal Eng. J. 43 (4): 221–237. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0578563401000359.
Choi, S.-U., and M. H. Garcia. 2002. “k-ϵ turbulence modeling of density currents developing two dimensionally on a slope.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 128 (1): 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2002)128:1(55).
Chowdhury, M. R., and F. Y. Testik. 2014. “A review of gravity currents formed by submerged single-port discharges in inland and coastal waters.” Environ. Fluid Mech. 14 (2): 265–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10652-014-9334-7.
Christodoulou, G. C. 1986. “Interfacial mixing in stratified flows.” J. Hydraul. Res. 24 (2): 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221688609499323.
Chu, V. H., and G. H. Jirka. 1987. “Surface buoyant jets and plumes.” Encyclopedia of Fluid Mech. 6: 1053–1084.
Cortés, A., F. J. Rueda, and M. G. Wells. 2014. “Experimental observations of the splitting of a gravity current at a density step in a stratified water body.” J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 119 (2): 1038–1053. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JC009304.
Crimaldi, J. P. 2008. “Planar laser induced fluorescence in aqueous flows.” Exp. Fluids 44 (6): 851–863. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00348-008-0496-2.
Dallimore, C. J., B. R. Hodges, and J. Imberger. 2003. “Coupling an underflow model to a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 129 (10): 748–757. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2003)129:10(748).
Dallimore, C. J., J. Imberger, and T. Ishikawa. 2001. “Entrainment and turbulence in saline underflow in Lake Ogawara.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 127 (11): 937–948. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2001)127:11(937).
Ellison, T. H., and J. S. Turner. 1959. “Turbulent entrainment in stratified flows.” J. Fluid Mech. 6 (3): 423. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112059000738.
Fernandez, R. L., and J. Imberger. 2006. “Bed roughness induced entrainment in a high Richardson number underflow.” J. Hydraul. Res. 44 (6): 725–738. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221686.2006.9521724.
Ferrier, A., D. Funk, and P. Roberts. 1993. “Application of optical techniques to the study of plumes in stratified fluids.” Dyn. Atmos. Oceans 20 (1–2): 155–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0265(93)90052-9.
Fukuoka, S., and Y. Fukushima. 1980. “On dynamic behaviour of the head of the gravity current in a stratified reservoir.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., 2nd Int. Symp. on Stratified Flow, IAHR, 164–173. Trondheim, Norway.
Fukushima, Y., G. Parker, and H. Pantin. 1985. “Prediction of ignitive turbidity currents in Scripps Submarine Canyon.” Mar. Geol. 67 (1–2): 55–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(85)90148-3.
Garcia, M. H. 1986. “Experimental study of turbidity currents.” M.S. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Mineral Engineering, Univ. of Minnesota.
Garcia, M. H. 1993. “Hydraulic jumps in sediment driven bottom currents.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 119 (10): 1094–1117. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1993)119:10(1094).
Garcia, M. H. 1996. Hidrodinamica ambiental. Santa Fe, Argentina: Universidad Nacional del Litoral.
Gerber, G., G. Diedericks, and G. R. Basson. 2011. “Particle image velocimetry measurements and numerical modeling of a saline density current.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 137 (3): 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0000304.
Gray, T. E., J. Alexander, and M. R. Leeder. 2006. “Longitudinal flow evolution and turbulence structure of dynamically similar, sustained, saline density and turbidity currents.” J. Geophys. Res. 111 (C8): C08015. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JC003089.
Hamilton, P. B., K. B. Strom, and D. C. J. D. Hoyal. 2015. “Hydraulic and sediment transport properties of autogenic avulsion cycles on submarine fans with supercritical distributaries.” J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 120 (7): 1369–1389. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JF003414.
Härtel, C., E. Meiburg, and F. Necker. 2000. “Analysis and direct numerical simulation of the flow at a gravity-current head. Part 1: Flow topology and front speed for slip and no-slip boundaries.” J. Fluid Mech. 418 (1): 189–212. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112000001221.
Hebbert, B., J. Patterson, I. Loh, and J. Imberger. 1979. “Collie River underflow into the Wellington reservoir.” J. Hydraul. Div. 105 (5): 533–545.
Hetland, R. D. 2010. “The effects of mixing and spreading on density in near-field river plumes.” Dyn. Atmos. Oceans 49 (1): 37–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dynatmoce.2008.11.003.
Hetland, R. D., and D. G. MacDonald. 2008. “Spreading in the near-field Merrimack River plume.” Ocean Modell. 21 (1–2): 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2007.11.001.
Hosseini, S., A. Shamsai, and B. Ataie-Ashtiani. 2006. “Synchronous measurements of the velocity and concentration in low density turbidity currents using an acoustic Doppler velocimeter.” Flow Meas. Instrum. 17 (1): 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2005.05.002.
Huppert, H. E. 2006. “Gravity currents: A personal perspective.” J. Fluid Mech. 554 (1): 299–322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002211200600930X.
Huppert, H. E., and J. E. Simpson. 2006. “The slumping of gravity currents.” J. Fluid Mech. 99 (4): 785. https://doi.org/10.1017 /S0022112080000894.
Islam, M. A., and J. Imran. 2010. “Vertical structure of continuous release saline and turbidity currents.” J. Geophys. Res. 115 (C8): C08025. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JC005365.
Jirka, G. H. 2004. “Integral model for turbulent buoyant jets in unbounded stratified flows. I: Single round jet.” Environ. Fluid Mech. 4 (1): 1–56. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025583110842.
Kashefipour, S., F. Kooti, and M. Ghomeshi. 2010. “Effect of reservoir bed slope and density current discharge on water entrainment.” In Proc., 6th Int. Symp. on Environmental Hydraulics. London: Taylor & Francis.
Kneller, B. C., S. J. Bennett, and W. D. McCaffrey. 1999. “Velocity structure, turbulence and fluid stresses in experimental gravity currents.” J. Geophys. Res. 104 (C3): 5381–5391. https://doi.org/10.1029/1998JC900077.
Koh, R. C. 1976. “Buoyancy-driven gravitational spreading.” Proc., 15th Int. Conf. on Coastal Engineering, 2956–2975. Reston, VA: ASCE.
La Rocca, M., C. Adduce, G. Sciortino, and A. B. Pinzon. 2008. “Experimental and numerical simulation of three-dimensional gravity currents on smooth and rough bottom.” Phys. Fluids 20 (10): 106603. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3002381.
La Rocca, M., and A. B. Pinzon. 2010. “Experimental and theoretical modelling of 3D gravity currents.” Chap. 14 in Numerical simulations: Examples and applications in computational fluid dynamics. London: InTech.
Liao, Q., and E. Cowen. 2010. “Relative dispersion of a scalar plume in a turbulent boundary layer.” J. Fluid Mech. 661 (Oct): 412–445. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112010003058.
Lofquist, K. 1960. “Flow and stress near an interface between stratified liquids.” Phys. Fluids 3 (2): 158. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1706013.
Lombardi, V., C. Adduce, and M. La Rocca. 2018. “Unconfined lock-exchange gravity currents with variable lock width: Laboratory experiments and shallow-water simulations.” J. Hydraul. Res. 56 (3): 399–4911. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221686.2017.1372817.
Lowe, R. J., J. W. Rottman, and P. F. Linden. 2005. “The non-Boussinesq lock-exchange problem. Part 1: Theory and experiments.” J. Fluid Mech. 537 (1): 101–124. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112005005069.
MacDonald, D. G., and F. Chen. 2012. “Enhancement of turbulence through lateral spreading in a stratified-shear flow: Development and assessment of a conceptual model.” J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 117: C05025. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007484.
Mahgoub, M., R. Hinkelmann, and M. L. Rocca. 2015. “Three-dimensional non-hydrostatic simulation of gravity currents using TELEMAC3D and comparison of results to experimental data.” Prog. Comput. Fluid Dyn. Int. J. 15 (1): 56–67. https://doi.org/10.1504/PCFD.2015.067325.
Martin, J. E., and M. H. Garcia. 2008. “Combined PIV/PLIF measurements of a steady density current front.” Exper. Fluids 46 (2): 265–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00348-008-0556-7.
Martin, J. E., T. Sun, and M. H. Garcia. 2012. “Optical methods in the laboratory: An application to density currents over bedforms.” In Environmental fluid mechanics: Memorial volume in honour of Prof. Gerhard H. Jirka. IAHR Monograph. Leiden, Netherlands: CRC Press.
Maxworthy, T., and R. I. Nokes. 2007. “Experiments on gravity currents propagating down slopes. Part 1: The release of a fixed volume of heavy fluid from an enclosed lock into an open channel.” J. Fluid Mech. 584 (Aug): 433–453. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112007006702.
Morton, B. R., G. Taylor, and J. S. Turner. 1956. “Turbulent gravitational convection from maintained and instantaneous sources.” Proc. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 234 (1196): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1956.0011.
Nogueira, H. I. S., C. Adduce, E. Alves, and M. J. Franca. 2014. “Dynamics of the head of gravity currents.” Environ. Fluid Mech. 14 (2): 519–540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10652-013-9315-2.
Nokes, R., J. McBryde, M. Davidson, and M. Allis. 2010. “Modelling the front conditions of rigid boundary gravity currents.” In Proc., 6th Int. Symp. on Environmental Hydraulics, 183–188. London: Taylor & Francis.
Ottolenghi, L., C. Adduce, R. Inghilesi, V. Armenio, and F. Roman. 2016a. “Entrainment and mixing in unsteady gravity currents.” J. Hydraul. Res. 54 (5): 541–557. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221686.2016.1174961.
Ottolenghi, L., C. Adduce, R. Inghilesi, F. Roman, and V. Armenio. 2016b. “Mixing in lock-release gravity currents propagating up a slope.” Phys. Fluids 28 (5): 056604. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4948760.
Ottolenghi, L., C. Adduce, F. Roman, and V. Armenio. 2017a. “Analysis of the flow in gravity currents propagating up a slope.” Ocean Modell. 115 (Jul): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2017.05.001.
Ottolenghi, L., C. Cenedese, and C. Adduce. 2017b. “Entrainment in a dense current flowing down a rough sloping bottom in a rotating fluid.” J. Phys. Oceanogr. 47 (3): 485–498. https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-16-0175.1.
Özgökmen, T. M., and E. P. Chassignet. 2002. “Dynamics of two-dimensional turbulent bottom gravity currents.” J. Phys. Oceanogr. 32 (5): 1460–1478. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032%3C1460:DOTDTB%3E2.0.CO;2.
Palomar, P. 2014. “Experimental and numerical optimization of brine discharges in the marine environment.” Ph.D. thesis, Departamento de Ciencias y Técnicas del Agua y del Medio Ambiente, Universidad de Cantabria.
Parker, G., Y. Fukushima, and H. M. Pantin. 1986. “Self-accelerating turbidity currents.” J. Fluid Mech. 171 (1): 145–181. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112086001404.
Parker, G., M. Garcia, Y. Fukushima, and W. Yu. 1987. “Experiments on turbidity currents over an erodible bed.” J. Hydraul. Res. 25 (1): 123–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221688709499292.
Patterson, M. D., J. E. Simpson, S. B. Dalziel, and G. J. F. van Heijst. 2006. “Vortical motion in the head of an axisymmetric gravity current.” Phys. Fluids 18 (4): 046601. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2174717.
Princevac, M., H. J. S. Fernando, and C. D. Whiteman. 2005. “Turbulent entrainment into natural gravity-driven flows.” J. Fluid Mech. 533 (Jun): 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112005004441.
Sequeiros, O. E. 2012. “Estimating turbidity current conditions from channel morphology: A Froude number approach.” J. Geophys. Res. 117: C04003. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007201.
Sequeiros, O. E., B. Spinewine, R. T. Beaubouef, T. Sun, M. H. García, and G. Parker. 2010. “Characteristics of velocity and excess density profiles of saline underflows and turbidity currents flowing over a mobile bed.” J. Hydraul. Eng. 136 (7): 412–433. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0000200.
Simpson, J. E. 1982. “Gravity currents in the laboratory, atmosphere, and ocean.” Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 14 (1): 213–234. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fl.14.010182.001241.
Simpson, J. E. 1997. Gravity currents: The environment and the laboratory. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Smyth, W. D., and J. N. Moum. 2000. “Length scales of turbulence in stably stratified mixing layers.” Phys. Fluids 12 (6): 1327–1342. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.870385.
Stolzenbach, K. D., and D. R. F. Harleman. 1973. “Three-dimensional heated surface jets.” Water Resour. Res. 9 (1): 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR009i001p00129.
Strang, E. J., and H. J. S. Fernando. 2001. “Entrainment and mixing in stratified shear flows.” J. Fluid Mech. 428 (Feb): 349–386. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112000002706.
Tsihrintzis, V. A., and V. Alavian. 1996. “Spreading of three-dimensional inclined gravity plumes.” J. Hydraul. Res. 34 (5): 695–711. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221689609498466.
Turner, J. S. 1986. “Turbulent entrainment: The development of the entrainment assumption, and its application to geophysical flows.” J. Fluid Mech. 173 (1): 431–471. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112086001222.
Wells, M., C. Cenedese, and C. P. Caulfield. 2010. “The relationship between flux coefficient and entrainment ratio in density currents.” J. Phys. Oceanogr. 40 (12): 2713–2727. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JPO4225.1.
Wells, M. G. 2007. “Influence of Coriolis forces on turbidity currents and sediment deposition.” In Particle-laden flow, 331–343. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Westerweel, J. 1993. “Digital particle image velocimetry: Theory and application.” Ph.D. thesis, Mechanical Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft Univ.
Willert, C. 1996. “The fully digital evaluation of photographic PIV recordings.” Appl. Sci. Res. 56 (2–3): 79–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02249375.
Yuan, Y., A. R. Horner-Devine, Y. Yuan, and A. R. Horner-Devine. 2013. “Laboratory investigation of the impact of lateral spreading on buoyancy flux in a river plume.” J. Phys. Oceanogr. 43 (12): 2588–2610. https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-12-0117.1.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering
Volume 144 • Issue 9 • September 2018
Copyright
©2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jul 13, 2017
Accepted: Apr 3, 2018
Published online: Jul 12, 2018
Published in print: Sep 1, 2018
Discussion open until: Dec 12, 2018
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.