Efficacy of Design Methods for Predicting the Capacity of Large-Diameter Open-Ended Piles
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148, Issue 10
Abstract
Large-diameter open-ended piles (LDOEPs) are increasingly being used for support of infrastructure projects. Yet, many of the methods in current use for predicting their capacity are based on studies involving small-diameter piles. The efficacy of eight commonly used pile design methods was explored using a database of 64 load tests on full-scale LDOEPs. Capacities were computed using eight commonly used design methods based on both the standard penetration test (SPT) and cone penetration test (CPT). The calculated capacities were compared with capacities interpreted from load tests using several failure interpretation criteria. The study demonstrated that cone penetration test (CPT)-based methods are somewhat superior to SPT methods, but all methods exhibited scatter between measured and predicted capacities, with the computed capacity off by a factor of two in many load tests. Several plugging conditions were compared for each of these methods. Seven of the eight design methods better predicted pile capacity considering that the piles are unplugged, ignoring contributions of the soil internal friction on the pile inner diameter. These findings suggest that (1) LDOEPs do not plug during static loading, with little contribution of interior skin friction to pile capacity; and (2) LDOEPs do not develop significant end bearing.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The data employed in this study were publicly released by the Federal Highway Administration as part of the Deep Foundation Load Test Database (DFLTD v2), Publication No. FHWA-HRT-17-034.
References
AASHTO. 2014. AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications, customary U.S. units, 7th Edition, with 2015 Interim Revisions. AASHTO-LRFDUS-7-M. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
API (American Petroleum Institute). 1993. API recommended practice for planning, designing, and constructing fixed offshore platforms. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.
Aschenbrener, T. B., and R. E. Olson. 1984. “Prediction of settlement of single piles in clay.” In Analysis and design of pile foundations, 41–58. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Axelsson, G. 2000. “Long-term set-up of driven piles in sand.” Doctoral dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institutionen för anläggning och miljö.
Bowman, E. T., and K. Soga. 2003. “Creep, ageing and microstructural change in dense granular materials.” Soils Found. 43 (4): 107–117. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.43.4_107.
Bradshaw, A. S., S. Haffke, and C. D. P. Baxter. 2012. “Load transfer curves from a large-diameter pipe pile in silty soil.” In Proc., ASCE Honoring Bengt H. Fellenius 2012: Full-Scale Testing and Foundation Design, 590–601. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Briaud, J.-L., and L. M. Tucker. 1988. “Measured and predicted axial response of 98 piles.” J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (9): 984–1001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:9(984).
Brzezinski, L. S., and H. U. Baba. 2012. “Offshore open end steel tubular piles—A case history.” In Full-scale testing and foundation design, geotechnical special publication, 568–589. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Burmister, D. M. 1950. “Principles and techniques of soil identification.” In Proc., Annual Highway Research Board Meeting, 402–434. Washington, DC: National Research Council.
Caltrans. 2002. Port of Oakland conn. Via. No. 33-0612E Bents: 10NCI, 17NCI, 27NC; Br. No.: 33-612; CT-IDs: 012-05/06, 012-03/04, 012-05/06. Sacramento, CA: California DOT.
Caltrans. 2009. Route 101 Hum Pier 2L, Br. No: 04-0025L, CT-ID: 136-01. Sacramento, CA: California DOT.
Caltrans. 2014. I-880 5th St. Overhead Bent 16, Br. No: 133-01, CT-ID: 133-01. Sacramento, CA: California DOT.
Caltrans. 2015a. Russian River Route 120 Abutment 11, Br. No: 10-0301, CT-ID: 138-01. Sacramento, CA: California DOT.
Caltrans. 2015b. Russian River Route 222, Br. No: 10-0301, CT-ID: 137-01. Sacramento, CA: California DOT.
Chow, F. C., R. J. Jardine, F. Brucy, and J. F. Nauroy. 1998. “Effects of time on capacity of pipe piles in dense marine sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 124 (3): 254–264. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1998)124:3(254).
Clausen, C. J. F., P. M. Aas, and K. Karlsrud. 2005. “Bearing capacity of driven piles in sand, the NGI approach.” In Proc., ISFOG Conf. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Cox, W. R., I. J. Solomon, and K. Cameron. 1993. Instrumentation and calibration of two 762 mm diameter pipe piles for axial load tests in clays. London: Thomas Telford.
Dennis, N. D., and R. E. Olson. 1983a. “Axial capacity of steel pipe piles in clay.” In Proc., Conf. on Geotechnical Practice on Offshore Engineering, 370–388. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Dennis, N. D., and R. E. Olson. 1983b. “Axial capacity of steel pipe piles in sand.” In Proc., Conf. on Geotechnical Practice on Offshore Engineering, 389–402. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Fellenius, B. H., R. E. Riker, A. J. O’Brien, and G. R. Tracy. 1989. “Dynamic and static testing in soil exhibiting set-up.” J. Geotech. Eng. 115 (7): 984–1001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1989)115:7(984).
Focht, J. A., and V. N. Vijayvergiya. 1972. “A new way to predict capacity of piles in clay.” In Proc., Offshore Technology Conf. Houston: Offshore Technology Conference. https://doi.org/10.4043/1718-MS.
Gavin, K., and D. Igoe. 2021. “A field investigation into the mechanisms of pile ageing in sand.” Géotechnique 71 (2): 120–131. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.18.P.235.
Gilchrist, J. M. 1985. “Load tests on tubular piles in coralline strata.” J. Geotech. Eng. 111 (5): 641–655. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1985)111:5(641).
Greiner Engineering Sciences. 1982. Load tests report: L.R. 795 Section B-6. Harrisburg, PA: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
Hagerty, D. J., and J. E. Garlanger. 1972. “Consolidation effects around driven piles.” In Performance of earth and earth-supported structures, 241. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Hannigan, P. J., F. Rausche, G. E. Likins, B. R. Robinson, and M. L. Becker. 2016. Design and construction of driven pile foundations. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
ICC (International Code Council). 2014. 2014 New York City building code, first printing. New York: ICC.
Ishihara, K., A. Saito, Y. Shimmi, Y. Miura, and M. Tominaga. 1981. “Blast furnace foundation in Japan.” In Proc., 9th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 157–236. Tokyo: Japanese Geotechnical Society.
Iskander, M. 2011. “Behavior of pipe piles in sand: Plugging and pore-water pressure generation during installation and loading.” In Springer series in geomechanics and geoengineering. Berlin: Springer.
Iskander, M. G., R. E. Olson, and J. A. Bay. 2001. “Design and performance of an electro-pneumatic pile hammer for laboratory applications.” Geotech. Test. J. 24 (1): 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11283J.
Jardine, R. J., F. C. Chow, R. Overy, and J. Standing. 2005. ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays. London: Thomas Telford.
Jardine, R. J., J. R. Standing, and F. C. Chow. 2006. “Some observations of the effects of time on the capacity of piles driven in sand.” Géotechnique 56 (4): 227–244. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2006.56.4.227.
Karlsrud K., C. J. F. Clausen, and P. M. Aas. 2005. “Bearing capacity of driven piles in clay, the NGI approach.” In Proc., Int. Symp. on Frontiers in Offshore Geotechnics. Perth, WA: A.A. Balkema Publishers.
Karlsrud, K., and T. Haugen. 1985. “Axial static capacity of steel model piles in overconsolidated clay.” In Proc., Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1401–1406. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Kikuchi, Y., M. Mizutani, and H. Yamashita. 2007. “Vertical bearing capacity of large diameter steel pipe piles.” In Proc., Int. Workshop on Recent Advances of Deep Foundations, 177–182. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kodsy, A., and M. Iskander. 2022. “Insights into plugging of pipe piles based on pile dimensions.” Appl. Sci. 12: 2711. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12052711.
Kodsy, A., N. Machairas, and M. G. Iskander. 2020. “Assessment of several interpreted pile capacity criteria for large-diameter open-ended piles.” Geotech. Test. J. 44 (5): 1217–1243. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20200074.
Kolk, H. J., A. E. Baaijens, and M. Senders. 2005. “Design criteria for pipe piles in silica sands.” In Proc., Int. Symp. on Frontiers in Offshore Geomechanics (ISFOG 2005). London: Taylor and Francis.
Kraft, L. M., J. A. Focht, and S. F. Amerasinghe. 1981. “Friction capacity of piles driven into clay.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 107 (11): 1521–1541. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0001206.
Kusakabe, O., T. Mitsumoto, I. Sandanbata, S. Kosuge, and S. Nishimura. 1989. “Predictions of bearing capacity and driveability of piles.” In Proc., Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 2957–2957. Avereest, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Lehane, B. M., Y. Li, and R. Williams. 2013. “Shaft capacity of displacement piles in clay using the cone penetration test.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139 (2): 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000749.
Lehane, B. M., J. K. Lim, P. Carotenuto, F. Nadim, S. Lacasse, R. J. Jardine, and B. F. J. Van Dijk. 2017. “Characteristics of unified databases for driven piles.” In Proc., 8th Int. Conf. of Offshore Site Investigation and Geotechnics OSIG, 162–191. London: Society for Underwater Technology. https://doi.org/10.3723/OSIG17.162.
Lehane, B. M., J. A. Schneider, and X. Xu. 2005. “The UWA-05 method for prediction of axial capacity of driven piles in sand.” In Proc., Int. Symp. on Frontiers in Offshore Geomechanics (ISFOG 2005). London: Taylor and Francis.
Liebich, B. A. 2009. “High capacity piles at the Stony Creek Bridge project.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2116 (1): 41–46. https://doi.org/10.3141/2116-06.
Machairas, N., G. A. Highley, and M. G. Iskander. 2018. “Evaluation of FHWA pile design method against the FHWA deep foundation load test database version 2.0.” Transp. Res. Rec. 2672 (52): 268–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198118773196.
Matsumoto, T., Y. Michi, and T. Hirano. 1995. “Performance of axially loaded steel pipe piles driven in soft rock.” J. Geotech. Eng. 121 (4): 305–315. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:4(305).
McVay, M. C., D. Badri, and Z. Hu. 2004. Determination of axial pile capacity of prestressed concrete cylinder piles. Tallahassee, FL: Univ. of Florida.
Mercea, C., and Y. M. Awad. 2002. Pile field acceptance criteria, pile dynamic analysis, and pile load test results: Test-pile at Bent 3, Santa Clara River Bridge 53-2925. Sacramento, CA: California DOT.
Murff, J. D. 1980. “Pile capacity in a softening soil.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 4 (2): 185–189. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.1610040208.
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command). 1986. Design manual 7.01 (DM-7.01). Alexandria, VA: NAVFAC.
NCHRP (National Cooperative Highway Research Program). 2015. National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) synthesis 478: Design and load testing of large diameter open-ended driven piles. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Ng, K. W., M. Roling, S. S. AbdelSalam, M. T. Suleiman, and S. Sritharan. 2013. “Pile setup in cohesive soil. I: Experimental investigation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139 (2): 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000751.
Niazi, F. S., and P. W. Mayne. 2013. “Cone penetration test based direct methods for evaluating static axial capacity of single piles.” Geotech. Geol. Eng. 31 (4): 979–1009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-013-9662-2.
Nordlund, R. L. 1963. “Bearing capacity of piles in cohesionless soils.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 89 (3): 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.0000507.
NYDOT (New York DOT). 1996. “Load testing of 14 in. square and 54 in. dia.” In Cylindrical prestressed concrete piles at Crossbay Blvd. over North Channel. Queens County, NY: NYDOT.
Olson, R., and M. Iskander. 2014. “Axial load capacity of pipe piles in sands.” In From soil behavior fundamentals to innovations in geotechnical engineering, 209–220. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Paikowsky, S. G., and R. V. Whitman. 1990. “The effects of plugging on pile performance and design.” Can. Geotech. J. 27 (4): 429–440. https://doi.org/10.1139/t90-059.
Peck, R. B., W. E. Hanson, and T. H. Thornburn. 1974. Foundation engineering. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.
Pelletier, J. H., J. D. Murff, and A. C. Young. 1993. “Historical development and assessment of the current API design methods for axially loaded pipes.” In Proc., Offshore Technology Conf. Houston: Offshore Technology Conference. https://doi.org/10.4043/7157-MS.
Petek, K., M. McVay, and R. Mitchell. 2020. Development of guidelines for bearing resistance of large diameter open-end steel piles. No. FHWA-HRT-20-011. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
Petek, K., R. Mitchell, and G. Buechel. 2012. Full scale instrumented pile load test for the Port Mann bridge: Surrey, British Columbia, Canada, 362–375. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Petek, K., R. Mitchell, and H. Ellis. 2016. FHWA deep foundation load test database Version 2.0 user manual. McLean, VA: Federal Highway Administration.
Pump, W., S. Korista, and J. Scott. 1998. “Installation and load tests of deep piles in Shanghai alluvium.” In Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Piling and Deep Foundations, 31–36. Vienna, NJ. Deep Foundations Institute.
Reese, L. C., W. M. Isenhower, and S.-T. Wang. 2005. Analysis and design of shallow and deep foundations. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Richard, L. 2010. “Spiral welded pipe piles for structures in southeastern Louisiana.” Doctoral dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of New Orleans.
Robertson, P. K. 2010. “Soil behavior type from the CPT: An update.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Symp. on Cone Penetration Testing. Signal Hill, CA: Gregg Drilling & Testing.
Robertson, P. K., and K. L. Cabal. 2010. “Estimating soil unit weight from CPT.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Symp. on Cone Penetration Testing. Signal Hill, CA: Gregg Drilling & Testing.
Robertson, P. K., R. G. Campanella, P. T. Brown, I. Grof, and J. M. O. Hughes. 1985. “Design of axially and laterally loaded piles using in-situ tests: A case history.” Can. Geotech. J. 22 (4): 518–527. https://doi.org/10.1139/t85-072.
Robinsky, E. I., and C. F. Morrison. 1964. “Sand displacement and compaction around model friction piles.” Can. Geotech. J. 1 (2): 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1139/t64-002.
Schmertmann, J. H. 1991. “The mechanical aging of soils.” J. Geotech. Eng. 117 (9): 1288–1330. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1991)117:9(1288).
Shioi, Y., O. Yoshida, T. Meta, and M. Homma. 1992. “Estimation of bearing capacity of steel pipe pile by static loading test and stress-wave theory (Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway).” Application of stress-wave theory to piles, 325–330. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Sowers, G. F. 1979. Introductory soil mechanics and foundations. New York: MacMillan.
Ta, J. L., and B. A. Liebich. 2011. “Pile dynamic analysis and pile load test results: Test pile at Pier 12, Feather river bridge 18-0026R.” In Foundation testing branch. Sacramento, CA: California DOT.
Tang, C., and K. K. Phoon. 2018. “Statistics of model factors in reliability-based design of axially loaded driven piles in sand.” Can. Geotech. J. 55 (11): 1592–1610. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0542.
Tavenas, F., and R. Audy. 1972. “Limitations of the driving formulas for predicting the bearing capacities of piles in sand.” Can. Geotech. J. 9 (1): 47–62. https://doi.org/10.1139/t72-004.
Terzaghi, K., R. B. Peck, and G. Mesri. 1996. Soil mechanics in engineering practice. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley.
Tomlinson, M. J. 1980. Foundation design and construction. 4th ed. Boston: Pitman Advanced Publishing Program.
Tovar-Valencia, R. D., A. C. Galvis-Castro, M. Prezzi, and R. Salgado. 2018. “Short-term setup of jacked piles in a calibration chamber.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 144 (12): 04018092. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001984.
USACE. 1991. Design of pile foundations. Washington, DC: USACE.
Wang S. T., J. A. Arrellaga, and L. Vasquez. 2019. APILE v2019—Technical manual: A program for the study of driven piles under axial loads. Washington, DC: ENSOFT.
Wilbur Smith Associates. 2004. Report on pile load test program (LA-1 improvements). Final Report. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana DOT.
Yang, Z. X., W. B. Guo, R. J. Jardine, and F. Chow. 2017. “Design method reliability assessment from an extended database of axial load tests on piles driven in sand.” Can. Geotech. J. 54 (1): 59–74. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0518.
Yang, Z. X., W. B. Guo, F. S. Zha, R. J. Jardine, C. J. Xu, and Y. Q. Cai. 2015a. “Field behavior of driven prestressed high-strength concrete piles in sandy soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 141 (6): 04015020. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001303.
Yang, Z. X., R. J. Jardine, W. B. Guo, and F. Chow. 2015b. A comprehensive database of tests on axially loaded piles driven in sand. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.
Yang, Z. X., R. J. Jardine, W. B. Guo, and F. Chow. 2015c. “A new and openly accessible database of tests on piles driven in sands.” Géotech. Lett. 5 (1): 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1680/geolett.14.00075.
York, D. L., W. G. Brusey, F. M., Clemente, and S. K. Law. 1994. “Setup and relaxation in glacial sand.” J. Geotech. Eng. 120 (9): 1498–1513. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:9(1498).
Zhang, Z., and Y. H. Wang. 2015. “Examining setup mechanisms of driven piles in sand using laboratory model pile tests.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 141 (3): 04014114. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001252.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148 • Issue 10 • October 2022
Copyright
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Sep 24, 2021
Accepted: Mar 14, 2022
Published online: Jul 29, 2022
Published in print: Oct 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Dec 29, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Baturalp Ozturk, Antonio Kodsy, Magued Iskander, Forecasting the Bearing Capacity of Open-Ended Pipe Piles Using Machine Learning Ensemble Methods, IFCEE 2024, 10.1061/9780784485408.016, (146-156), (2024).
- Baturalp Ozturk, Antonio Kodsy, Magued Iskander, Forecasting the Capacity of Open-Ended Pipe Piles Using Machine Learning, Infrastructures, 10.3390/infrastructures8010012, 8, 1, (12), (2023).
- Antonio Kodsy, Baturalp Öztürk, Youssef Bazi, Magued G. Iskander, Assessment of Several Interpretation Criteria for Tensile Axial Load Tests on Deep Foundations, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 10.1177/03611981221149435, (036119812211494), (2023).
- Demetrious C. Koutsoftas, Discussion of “CPT-Based Axial Capacity Design Method for Driven Piles in Clay”, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 10.1061/JGGEFK.GTENG-11505, 149, 10, (2023).
- Antonio Kodsy, Baturalp Ozturk, Magued Iskander, Forecasting of pile plugging using machine learning, Acta Geotechnica, 10.1007/s11440-023-01797-5, (2023).
- Antonio Kodsy, Magued Iskander, Insights into Plugging of Pipe Piles Based on Pile Dimensions, Applied Sciences, 10.3390/app12052711, 12, 5, (2711), (2022).