Soil–Foundation–Structure Interaction of Inelastic Structural Systems on Unsaturated Soil Layers
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148, Issue 7
Abstract
Recently, progress has been made toward understanding the seismic response of structures placed on unsaturated soil layers. A missing link, however, involves the influence and assessment of the underlying soil saturation conditions on the expected superstructure seismic demands. Simplified soil–structure interaction procedures that can be used to predict superstructure seismic demands have not been explicitly extended to incorporate the influence of unsaturated soil on the system response. In this paper, results from a series of six centrifuge tests are compared. In each test, an inelastic single-degree-of-freedom physical model was shallowly embedded in a sandy silt with a distinct water table elevation or a completely dry soil condition. The soil-structure system was subjected to a series of earthquake motions. The response of the system was evaluated to assess the influence of the soil saturation condition on the seismic response. Specifically, a conventional analytical procedure for predicting the influence of inertial interaction on the seismic response of the structure was extended to consider the water table elevation and underlying soil saturation condition and evaluated for its reliability. Analytical flexible-base modal parameters were compared with those determined from experimental results to judge the potential of the analytical procedure to be used in practice. Experimental results suggest that as the water table elevation was lowered from the fully saturated condition, both the flexible-base system period and damping ratio reduced. Therefore, the system behaved stiffer in the unsaturated soil compared with the dry and fully saturated conditions. The stiffer response reduced the seismically induced foundation settlements and rotations but amplified superstructure seismic demands in the form of accelerations, flexural drifts, and bending strains.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
Most of data and models generated or used during the study appear in the published article. However, some of data and models generated or used during the study are available from the corresponding author by request, including raw experimental data and testing conditions.
Acknowledgments
This study was partly supported by the collaborative research program (2019W-03) of the DPRI of Kyoto University. Additional partial funding was provided by the Institute of International Education Global E3 program. The authors would like to also acknowledge the substantial laboratory assistance provided by Ms. Ayako Namigishi of the Geotechnical Centrifuge Center at DPRI.
References
Arias, A. 1970. A measure of earthquake intensity. Cambridge, MA: Tech Press.
ASCE. 2017. Minimum design loads and associated criteria for buildings and other structures. ASCE 7-16. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Bielak, J. 1975. “Dynamic behaviour of structures with embedded foundations.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 3 (3): 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.4290030305.
Biglari, M., A. d’Onofrio, C. Mancuso, M. K. Jafari, A. Shafiee, and I. Ashayeri. 2012. “Small-strain stiffness of Zenoz kaolin in unsaturated conditions.” Can. Geotech. J. 49 (3): 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1139/t11-105.
Bishop, A. W. 1959. “The principle of effective stress.” Teknisk Ukeblad 106 (39): 859–863.
Borghei, A., and M. Ghayoomi. 2019. “The role of kinematic interaction on measured seismic response of soil-foundation-structure systems.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 125 (Oct): 105674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.05.013.
Borghei, A., M. Ghayoomi, and M. Turner. 2020. “Effects of groundwater level on seismic response of soil–foundation systems.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 146 (10): 04020110. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002359.
Caltrans. 2010. Seismic design criteria version 1.6. Sacramento, CA: California DOT.
Chen, Z., N. W. Trombetta, T. C. Hutchinson, H. B. Mason, J. D. Bray, and B. L. Kutter. 2013. “Seismic system identification using centrifuge-based soil-structure interaction test data.” J. Earthquake Eng. 17 (4): 469–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2012.762956.
Darendeli, B. M. 2001. “Development of a new family of normalized modulus reduction and material damping curves.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Austin.
Dashti, S., J. D. Bray, J. M. Pestana, M. Riemer, and D. Wilson. 2010. “Mechanisms of seismically induced settlement of buildings with shallow foundations on liquefiable soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136 (1): 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000179.
Dong, Y., N. Lu, and J. S. McCartney. 2016. “Unified model for small-strain shear modulus of variably saturated soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (9): 04016039. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001506.
d’Onza, F., A. d’Onofrio, and C. Mancuso. 2008. “Effects of unsaturated soil state on the local seismic response of soil deposits.” In Proc., 1st European Conf. on Unsaturated Soils. London: Taylor & Francis.
Duku, P. M., J. P. Stewart, D. H. Whang, and E. Yee. 2008. “Volumetric strains of clean sands subject to cyclic loads.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 134 (8): 1073–1085. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2008)134:8(1073).
Gajan, S., and B. L. Kutter. 2008. “Capacity, settlement, and energy dissipation of shallow footings subjected to rocking.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 134 (8): 1129–1141. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2008)134:8(1129).
Gajan, S., and B. L. Kutter. 2009. “Effects of moment-to-shear ratio on combined cyclic load-displacement behavior of shallow foundations from centrifuge experiments.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 135 (8): 1044–1055. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000034.
Ghayoomi, M., and S. Dashti. 2015. “Effect of ground motion characteristics on seismic soil-foundation-structure interaction.” Earthquake Spectra 31 (3): 1789–1812. https://doi.org/10.1193/040413EQS089M.
Ghayoomi, M., S. Ghadirianniari, A. Khosravi, and M. Mirshekari. 2018. “Seismic behavior of pile-supported systems in unsaturated sand.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 112 (Sep): 162–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.05.014.
Ghayoomi, M., and J. McCartney. 2011. “Measurement of small-strain shear moduli of partially saturated sand during infiltration in a geotechnical centrifuge.” Geotech. Test. J. 34 (5): 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ103608.
Ghayoomi, M., J. McCartney, and H. Ko. 2011. “Centrifuge test to assess the seismic compression of partially saturated sand layers.” Geotech. Test. J. 34 (4): 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ103355.
Ghayoomi, M., J. S. McCartney, and H.-Y. Ko. 2013. “Empirical methodology to estimate seismically induced settlement of partially saturated sand.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139 (3): 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000774.
Ghayoomi, M., G. Suprunenko, and M. Mirshekari. 2017. “Cyclic triaxial test to measure strain-dependent shear modulus of unsaturated sand.” Int. J. Geomech. 17 (9): 04017043. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000917.
Goel, R. K., and A. K. Chopra. 1997. “Period formulas for moment-resisting frame buildings.” J. Struct. Eng. 123 (11): 1454–1461. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1997)123:11(1454).
Hardin, B. O. 1978. “The nature of stress-strain behavior for soils.” In Proc., Geotechnical Engineering Division Specialty Conf. on Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, 3–90. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Hoyos, L. R., E. A. Suescún-Florez, and A. J. Puppala. 2015. “Stiffness of intermediate unsaturated soil from simultaneous suction-controlled resonant column and bender element testing.” Eng. Geol. 188 (Apr): 10–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.01.014.
Karimi, Z., and S. Dashti. 2016. “Numerical and centrifuge modeling of seismic soil–foundation–structure interaction on liquefiable ground.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (1): 04015061. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001346.
Kim, S., and J. P. Stewart. 2003. “Kinematic soil-structure interaction from strong motion recordings.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 129 (4): 323–335. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:4(323).
Le, K. N., and M. Ghayoomi. 2017. “Cyclic direct simple shear test to measure strain-dependent dynamic properties of unsaturated sand.” Geotech. Test. J. 40 (3): 20160128. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20160128.
Lu, N., J. W. Godt, and D. T. Wu. 2010. “A closed-form equation for effective stress in unsaturated soil.” Water Resour. Res. 46: W05515. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008646.
Masing, G. 1926. “Eigenspannungen und Verfestgung Beim Messing.” In Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. of Applied Mechanics. Reston, VA: ASCE. https://doi.org/10.1061/%28ASCE%29GT.1943-5606.0001816.
Mason, H. B., B. L. Kutter, J. D. Bray, D. W. Wilson, and B. Y. Choy. 2010. “Earthquake motion selection and calibration for use in a geotechnical centrifuge.” In Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Physical Modeling in Geotechnics, 361–366. London: CRC Press.
Menq, F. 2003. “Dynamic properties of sandy and gravelly soils.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Austin.
Mirshekari, M., and M. Ghayoomi. 2017. “Centrifuge tests to assess seismic site response of partially saturated sand layers.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 94 (Mar): 254–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.01.024.
Mirshekari, M., M. Ghayoomi, and A. Borghei. 2018. “A review on soil-water retention scaling in centrifuge modeling of unsaturated sands.” Geotech. Test. J. 41 (6): 20170120. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20170120.
Mousavi, S., and M. Ghayoomi. 2021a. “Liquefaction mitigation of sands with nonplastic fines via microbial-induced partial saturation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 147 (2): 04020156. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002444.
Mousavi, S., and M. Ghayoomi. 2021b. “Seismic compression of unsaturated silty sands: A strain-based approach.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 147 (5): 04021023. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002507.
Mousavi, S., M. Ghayoomi, and S. H. Jones. 2020. “Compositional and geoenvironmental factors in microbially induced partial saturation.” Environ. Geotech. 8 (4): 282–294. https://doi.org/10.1680/jenge.18.00087.
NIST. 2016. Seismic design of steel special moment frames: A guide for practicing engineers: NEHRP seismic design technical brief no. 2. 2nd ed. Gaithersburg, MD: NIST.
Poulos, H. G., and E. H. Davis. 1974. Elastic solutions for soil and rock mechanics. New York: Wiley.
Rathje, E. M., N. A. Abrahamson, and J. D. Bray. 1998. “Simplified frequency content estimates of earthquake ground motions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 124 (2): 150–159. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1998)124:2(150).
Roesset, J. M. 1980. A review of soil-structure interaction. Livermore, CA: US Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Stewart, J. P., and G. L. Fenves. 1998. “System identification for evaluating soil–structure interaction effects in buildings from strong motion recordings.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 27 (8): 869–885. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9845(199808)27:8%3C869::AID-EQE762%3E3.0.CO;2-9.
Stewart, J. P., G. L. Fenves, and R. B. Seed. 1999a. “Seismic soil-structure interaction in buildings. I: Analytical methods.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 125 (1): 26–37. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1999)125:1(26).
Stewart, J. P., S. Kim, J. Bielak, R. Dobry, and M. S. Power. 2003. “Revisions to soil-structure interaction procedures in NEHRP design provisions.” Earthquake Spectra 19 (3): 677–696. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.1596213.
Stewart, J. P., R. B. Seed, and G. L. Fenves. 1999b. “Seismic soil-structure interaction in buildings. II: Empirical findings.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 125 (1): 38–48. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1999)125:1(38).
Stewart, J. P., P. M. Smith, D. H. Whang, and J. D. Bray. 2004. “Seismic compression of two compacted earth fills shaken by the 1994 Northridge earthquake.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130 (5): 461–476. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2004)130:5(461).
Stinson, E. 2014. “Characterizing soil-foundation-structure interaction using experimental data from a test structure.” B.Sc. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton Univ.
Tileylioglu, S., J. P. Stewart, and R. L. Nigbor. 2011. “Dynamic stiffness and damping of a shallow foundation from forced vibration of a field test structure.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 137 (4): 344–353. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000430.
Trifunac, M., M. Todorovska, and T. V. Hao. 2001. “Full-scale experimental studies of soil-structure interaction—A review.” In Proc., 2nd US-Japan Workshop on Soil-Structure Interaction, 1–52. Los Angeles: Univ. of Southern California.
Trombetta, N. W., H. B. Mason, Z. Chen, T. C. Hutchinson, J. D. Bray, and B. L. Kutter. 2013. “Nonlinear dynamic foundation and frame structure response observed in geotechnical centrifuge experiments.” Soil Dyn. Earthquake Eng. 50 (Jul): 117–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2013.02.010.
Tsukamoto, Y., K. Ishihara, H. Nakazawa, K. Kamada, and Y. Huang. 2002. “Resistance of partly saturated sand to liquefaction with reference to longitudinal and shear wave velocities.” Soils Found. 42 (6): 93–104. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.42.6_93.
Turner, M. M., M. Ghayoomi, K. Ueda, and R. Uzuoka. 2021. “Performance of rocking foundations on unsaturated soil layers with variable groundwater levels.” Géotechnique. 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.20.P.221.
van Genuchten, M. 1980. “A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44 (5): 892–898. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x.
Veletsos, A. S., and J. W. Meek. 1974. “Dynamic behaviour of building-foundation systems.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 3 (2): 121–138. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.4290030203.
Veletsos, A. S., and V. V. D. Nair. 1975. “Seismic interaction of structures on hysteretic foundations.” J. Struct. Div. 101 (1): 109–129. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSDEAG.0003962.
Veletsos, A. S., and B. Verbic. 1973. “Vibration of viscoelastic foundations.” Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 2 (1): 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.4290020108.
Vinale, F., A. D’Onofrio, C. Mancuso, F. Santucci De Magistris, and F. Tatsuoka. 2001. “The prefailure behavior of soils as construction material.” In Proc., Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, 955–1007. Leiden, Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger B.V.
Wood, D. M. 2004. Geotechnical modelling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Yee, E., P. M. Duku, and J. P. Stewart. 2014. “Cyclic volumetric strain behavior of sands with fines of low plasticity.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (4): 04013042. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001041.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 148 • Issue 7 • July 2022
Copyright
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Jun 17, 2021
Accepted: Mar 4, 2022
Published online: Apr 28, 2022
Published in print: Jul 1, 2022
Discussion open until: Sep 28, 2022
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.
Cited by
- Zi Ye, Yonghui Chen, Gangqiang Kong, Geng Chen, Minguo Lin, 3D elastodynamic solutions to layered transversely isotropic soils considering the groundwater level, Computers and Geotechnics, 10.1016/j.compgeo.2023.105354, 158, (105354), (2023).
- Matthew M. Turner, Majid Ghayoomi, Kyohei Ueda, Ryosuke Uzuoka, Centrifuge Modeling to Evaluate the Seismic Response of Elastic and Inelastic Structures Embedded in Unsaturated Soil, Geo-Congress 2022, 10.1061/9780784484050.030, (284-292), (2022).