Drying-Induced Consolidation in Soil
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 146, Issue 9
Abstract
Drying-induced consolidation in soil is defined as volumetric shrinkage by interparticle stresses (suction stress) during drying under conditions of zero external or total stress. A new analysis is presented to synthesize recently published and new experimental data for soil water retention, shrinkage, physicochemical properties, and index properties for a broad range of soils ranging from nonexpansive to highly expansive. The suction stress characteristic curves of these soils are computed and compared using two deformation-based methods: the previously established discretized element solution and a simpler bulk-volume solution. Drying-induced consolidation for unsaturated soils exhibits a similar behavior to traditional consolidation behavior for saturated soils. The demonstrated strong correlations between the compression index and soil water retention characteristics and between the compression index and geotechnical index properties provide rational linkages between the fundamental soil properties and bulk deformation properties, where in this case the compression index is defined as the slope of the void ratio versus logarithm of negative suction stress relationship. These correlations are expected to be useful as new fundamental index properties for soil classification and for geotechnical applications involving desiccation and volume change.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All the experimental data reported are available from the senior or corresponding author.
Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored by National Science Foundation Grant Nos. CMMI-1363315, CMMI-1622781, and CMMI-1902045. In addition, National Natural Science Foundation of China Grant NSFC-51779254 to YD is gratefully appreciated.
References
Akin, I. D., and W. J. Likos. 2014. “Specific surface area of clay using water vapor and EGME sorption methods.” Geotech. Test. J. 37 (6): 20140064. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20140064.
Azzouz, A. S., R. J. Krizek, and R. B. Corotis. 1976. “Regression analysis of soil compressibility.” Soils Found. 16 (2): 19–29. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.16.2_19.
Bonin, M. D., M. Nuth, A.-M. Dagenais, and A. R. Cabral. 2014. “Experimental study on numerical reproduction of self-weight consolidation behavior of thickened tailings.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (12): 04014068. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001179.
Brandenberg, S. J. 2015. “iConsol.js: JavaScript implicit finite difference code for nonlinear consolidation and secondary compression.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 17 (6): 04016149. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5622.0000843.
Chen, C., and N. Lu. 2018. “Generalized equation for soil shrinkage curve.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 144 (8): 04018046. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001889.
Conte, E. 2004. “Consolidation analysis for unsaturated soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 41 (4): 599–612. https://doi.org/10.1139/t04-017.
Cozzolino, V. M. 1961. “Statistical forecasting of compression index.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., 5th Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Paris, France, 51–53. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Deng, A., and Y. Zhou. 2015. “Modeling electroosmosis and surcharge preloading consolidation. I. Model formulation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (4): 04015093. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001417.
Dong, Y., and N. Lu. 2016a. “Correlation between small-strain shear modulus and suction stress in capillary regime under zero total stress conditions.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (11): 04016056. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001531.
Dong, Y., and N. Lu. 2016b. “Dependencies of shear wave velocity and shear modulus of soil on saturation.” J. Eng. Mech. 142 (11): 04016083. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0001147.
Dong, Y., and N. Lu. 2017. “Measurement of suction stress characteristic curve under drying and wetting conditions.” Geotech. Test. J. 40 (1): 107–121. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20160058.
Dong, Y., N. Lu, and J. S. McCartney. 2016. “A unified model for small-strain shear modulus of variably saturated soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (9): 04016039. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001506.
Dong, Y., N. Lu, and J. S. McCartney. 2018. “Scaling shear modulus from small to finite strain for unsaturated soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 144 (2): 04017110. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001819.
Fleureau, J., S. Kheirbek-Saoud, R. Soemitro, and S. Taibi. 1993. “Behavior of clayey soils on drying-wetting paths.” Can. Geotech. J. 30 (2): 287–296. https://doi.org/10.1139/t93-024.
Fleureau, J., J. Verbrugge, P. J. Huergo, A. G. Correia, and S. Kheirbek-Saoud. 2002. “Aspects of the behaviour of compacted clayey soils on drying and wetting paths.” Can. Geotech. J. 39 (6): 1341–1357. https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-100.
Fox, P. J. 2000. “CS4: A large strain consolidation model for accreting soil layers.” In Geotechnics of high water content materials, STP 1374, edited by T. B. Edil and P. J. Fox, 29–47. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Fox, P. J. 2007a. “Coupled large strain consolidation and solute transport. I. Model development.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (1): 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:1(3).
Fox, P. J. 2007b. “Coupled large strain consolidation and solute transport. II. Model verification and simulation results.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133 (1): 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:1(16).
Fox, P. J., and J. D. Berles. 1997. “CS2: A piecewise-linear model for large strain consolidation.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 21 (7): 453–475. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9853(199707)21:7%3C453::AID-NAG887%3E3.0.CO;2-B.
Fox, P. J., M. Di Nicola, and D. W. Quigley. 2003. “Piecewise-linear model for large strain radial consolidation.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 129 (10): 940–950. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:10(940).
Fox, P. J., H. Pu, and J. D. Berles. 2014. “CS3: Large strain consolidation model for layered soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (8): 04014041. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001128.
Fredlund, D. G., and J. U. Hasan. 1979. “One-dimensional consolidation theory: Unsaturated soils.” Can. Geotech. J. 16 (3): 521–531. https://doi.org/10.1139/t79-058.
Gens, A., and E. E. Alonso. 1992. “A framework for the behaviour of unsaturated expansive clays.” Can. Geotech. J. 29 (6): 1013–1032. https://doi.org/10.1139/t92-120.
Gibson, R. E., G. L. England, and M. J. L. Hussey. 1967. “The theory of one-dimensional consolidation of saturated clays. I: Finite non-linear consolidation of thin homogeneous layers.” Géotechnique 17 (3): 261–273. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1967.17.3.261.
Gibson, R. E., R. L. Schiffman, and K. W. Cargill. 1981. “The theory of one-dimensional consolidation of saturated clays. II: Finite non-linear consolidation of thick homogeneous layers.” Can. Geotech. J. 18 (2): 280–293. https://doi.org/10.1139/t81-030.
Indraratna, B., R. Zhong, P. Fox, and C. Rujikiatkamjorn. 2016. “Large-strain vacuum-assisted consolidation with non-Darcian radial flow incorporating varying permeability and compressibility.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 143 (1): 04016088. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001599.
Khalili, N., M. H. Khabbaz, and S. Valliappan. 2000. “An effective stress based numerical model for hydro-mechanical analysis in unsaturated porous media.” Comput. Mech. 26 (2): 174–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004660000165.
Khorshidi, M., and N. Lu. 2016. “Intrinsic relationship between specific surface area and soil water retention.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 143 (1): 04016078. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001572.
Khorshidi, M., and N. Lu. 2017. “Determination of cation exchange capacity from soil water retention curve.” J. Eng. Mech. 143 (6): 04017023. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0001220.
Krosley, L., W. Likos, and N. Lu. 2003. “Alternative encasement materials for Clod test.” Geotech. Test. J. 26 (4): 461–463. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11259J.
Likos, W. J., N. Lu, and W. Wenszel. 2011. “Performance of a dynamic dew point method for moisture isotherms of clays.” Geotech. Test. J. 34 (4): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ102901.
Lloret, A., and E. E. Alonso. 1980. “Consolidation of unsaturated soils including swelling and collapse behaviour.” Géotechnique 30 (4): 449–477. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1980.30.4.449.
Lu, N. 2016. “Generalized soil water retention equation for adsorption and capillarity.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 142 (10): 04016051. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001524.
Lu, N., and Y. Dong. 2017a. “Correlation between soil shrinkage curve and water retention characteristics.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 143 (9): 04017054. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001741.
Lu, N., and Y. Dong. 2017b. “Vapor condensation technique for measuring stress-strain relation of unsaturated soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 143 (6): 02817002. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001656.
Lu, N., and Y. Dong. 2019. “Erratum for “Correlation between soil-shrinkage curve and water-retention characteristics” by Ning Lu and Yi Dong.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 145 (8): 08219002. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002090.
Lu, N., J. W. Godt, and D. T. Wu. 2010. “A closed-form equation for effective stress in unsaturated soil.” Water Resour. Res. 46 (5): W05515. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008646.
Lu, N., and M. Kaya. 2013. “A drying cake method for measuring suction-stress characteristic curve, soil-water-retention curve, and hydraulic conductivity function.” Geotech. Test. J. 36 (1): 20120097. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20120097.
Lu, N., and M. Kaya. 2014. “Power law for elastic moduli of unsaturated soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 140 (1): 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000990.
Lu, N., and M. Khorshidi. 2015. “Mechanism for soil-water retention and hysteresis at high suction range.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 141 (8): 04015032. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001325.
Lu, N., T. H. Kim, S. Sture, and W. J. Likos. 2009. “Tensile strength of unsaturated sand.” J. Eng. Mech. 135 (12): 1410–1419. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000054.
Lu, N., and W. J. Likos. 2004. Unsaturated soil mechanics. New York: Wiley.
Lu, N., and W. J. Likos. 2006. “Suction stress characteristic curve for unsaturated soils.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 132 (2): 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:2(131).
Mayne, P. W. 1980. “Cam-clay predictions of undrained strength.” J. Geotech. Eng. Div. 106(11): 1219–1242.
McKeen, R. G. 1992. “A model for predicting expansive soil behavior.” In Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Expansive Soils, 1–6. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Mun, W., and J. S. McCartney. 2015. “Compression mechanisms of unsaturated clay under high stresses.” Can. Geotech. J. 52 (12): 2099–2112. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2014-0438.
Pu, H., P. J. Fox, and Y. Liu. 2013. “Model for large strain consolidation under constant rate of strain.” Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 37 (11): 1574–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.2100.
Santamarina, J. C., K. A. Klein, and M. A. Fam. 2001. Soils and waves. New York: Wiley.
Schrefler, B. A., and X. Y. Zhan. 1993. “A fully coupled model for water flow and airflow in deformable porous media.” Water Resour. Res. 29 (1): 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1029/92WR01737.
Sharkey, K. 2002. “Geotechnical engineering behavior of Denver expansive clay shale.” M.S. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines.
Sheng, D. C., D. G. Fredlund, and A. Gens. 2008. “A new modelling approach for unsaturated soils using independent stress variables.” Geotech. Test. J. 45 (4): 511–534. https://doi.org/10.1139/T07-112.
Skempton, A. W. 1944. “Notes on the compressibility of clays.” Q. J. Geol. Soc. London 100 (1–4): 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.JGS.1944.100.01-04.08.
Terzaghi, K. 1943. Theoretical soil mechanics. New York: Wiley.
Terzaghi, K., and R. B. Peck. 1967. Soil mechanics in engineering practice. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.
van Genuchten, M. T. 1980. “A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44 (5): 892–898. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x.
Wayllace, A., and N. Lu. 2012. “Transient water release and imbibitions method for rapidly measuring wetting and drying soil water retention and hydraulic conductivity functions.” Geotech. Test. J. 35 (1): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ103596.
Wei, C. 2014. “A theoretical framework for modeling the chemomechanical behavior of unsaturated soils.” Vadose Zone J. 13 (9): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2013.07.0132.
Wheeler, S. J., R. S. Sharma, and M. S. R. Buisson. 2003. “Coupling of hydraulic hysteresis and stress–strain behaviour in unsaturated soils.” Géotechnique 53 (1): 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2003.53.1.41.
White, D. J., W. A. Take, and M. D. Bolton. 2003. “Soil deformation measurement using particle image velocimetry (PIV) and photogrammetry.” Géotechnique 53 (7): 619–631. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2003.53.7.619.
Wissa, A. E. Z., J. T. Christian, E. H. Davis, and S. Heiberg. 1971. “Consolidation at constant rate of strain.” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 97 (10): 1393–1413.
Wood, D. M. 1990. Soil behaviour and critical state soil mechanics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Zhou, A. N., D. C. Sheng, S. W. Sloan, and A. Gens. 2012. “Interpretation of unsaturated soil behaviour in the stress–saturation space II: Constitutive relationships and validations.” Comput. Geotech. 43 (Jun): 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2012.02.009.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
© 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Aug 14, 2019
Accepted: Apr 6, 2020
Published online: Jul 8, 2020
Published in print: Sep 1, 2020
Discussion open until: Dec 8, 2020
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.